E NGLIS 

Jfc._ «& & ■■&■.- fife 



/ 






..DWARDHA' . ' ^ 



Mmm 



m 




Class P-b 1 1U 

Book W__a_&- 

Oopyriglitlf 



CCEfRIGHT DEPOSIE 



EFFECTIVE 
ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

A HIGH SCHOOL TEXT 

ON 

ORAL AND WRITTEN COMPOSITION 



BY 

EDWARD HARLAN WERSTER 

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH 

THE TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOL 

AND 

DIRECTOR OF ENGLISH 

JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS, SPRINGFIELD, MASSACHUSETTS 




NEW YORK 

NEWSON & COMPANY 






Copyright, 1920, 
By Newson & Company 



All rights reserved 



M 18 1920 
©CLA570404 



PREFACE 

Effective English Expression is planned to appeal 
to the interests of pupils who have reached an age 
at which they can appreciate that the use of vital 
language is an important factor in the attaining of 
everyday aims and purposes. The book, therefore, 
stresses purposeful thinking and doing, and demands 
of each pupil a careful planning of every project. 
From the opening to the closing pages, the pupil is 
required to formulate in specific English the purpose 
of every oral or written exercise in which he engages. 
He is thus not allowed to drift aimlessly but he is 
made aware that he must know the end toward which 
he is working. This singleness of purpose, he is led 
to discover, guarantees in the accomplishment of 
every exercise a selection of ideas that produces clear- 
ness and directness, and a choice of words that insures 
accuracy and vividness. 

For such purposeful activity, the author has in- 
cluded exercises dealing with subjects which he has 
found to be of interest to young people in and out 
of school. Many exercises were contributed by pupils 
themselves as projects in which they had actually 
engaged in stores or shops, or in the various activities 
connected with school life. Present needs and in- 
terests, therefore, have not been sacrificed to hypo- 
thetical conditions that pupils may never meet in real 
fife. 



4 PREFACE 

Careful attention has been given to oral composi- 
tion. Fully one half of the book is designed to develop 
speaking ability. Now and then in oral composition 
exercises, the teacher should require the pupils to con- 
tribute subjects that limit themselves to short pre- 
sentation, upon topics and questions of local and 
national import and of immediate and far-reaching 
interest. Subjects of this kind can not be included in 
a composition text because of the changing character 
of local and national interests. They should not, 
however, be overlooked in the choosing of purposes for 
compositional activities inasmuch as they tend to create 
on the part of pupils broad, wholesome interests in 
important civic and industrial problems. The strength 
of the appeal of various subjects, moreover, should be 
noted carefully by the teacher. If a pupil seems 
"to find himself" in a certain activity, the teacher 
should be alert to suggest to him similar activities. 
In this way, a single purpose in Effective English Ex- 
pression may reveal to a pupil a whole series of in- 
teresting experiences about which he would like to 
speak or write. 

Written composition is emphasized in connection 
with every principle of expression developed. As 
an aid to effectiveness, much emphasis is placed upon 
the form and arrangement of material, especially in 
those exercises that deal with social and business 
correspondence. 

Chapter III and Appendix A are designed to assist 
the pupils in reviewing the essentials of grammar. 
Chapter IV contains the correct forms of constructions 
which give trouble in everyday speech. Daily oral 



PREFACE 5 

drill upon selected exercises should aid the teacher in 
securing grammatically accurate composition. Such 
daily drill should improve the conversational English 
of the pupils. The exercises of this chapter, moreover, 
may well be made the basis of drill for "better speech 
drives." 

Whenever practicable, the author has included 
(a) preliminary questions and suggestions; and (b) 
revision questions. Such questions will cultivate 
critical judgment and stimulate self-reliance in the 
pupils, and will save the time of teachers and pupils 
in the work of indicating and correcting mistakes in 
form and content. 

Many pages have been devoted to business corre- 
spondence because training in letter writing is essential 
for boys and girls, whatever the general aim of the 
school. The letter models have been written, for 
the greater part, by men who have made letter 
writing a study for years. Pupil-letters have been 
included occasionally for the purpose of critical 
analysis. The author suggests that the teacher 
determine in many instances whether letters are to 
be written as in private life or dictated as in business. 
Much practical work can be accomplished if the class 
is occasionally divided, when possible, into working 
groups for the purpose of writing shorthand dictation. 
Such letters should be dictated by pupils who have 
carefully considered every aspect of the communica- 
tion before attempting the exercise. The pupils 
who take the dictation should later copy their notes 
on the typewriter, if possible, in order to give their 
manuscript a businesslike appearance. 



6 PREFACE 

The book is essentially a practice manual, containing 
over three hundred exercises. These exercises are ar- 
ranged singly or in groups, in such a way that teachers 
can see the purpose of the group as well as of the indi- 
vidual exercise in developing and reenforcing composi- 
tion principles. 

The author desires to make special mention of his 
indebtedness to Mr. LaFayette L. Butler, who, 
because of his knowledge of English teaching and 
his practical work in business, has been able to render 
invaluable aid in the preparation of the manuscript. 
The author wishes, also, to acknowledge his indebted- 
ness to Mrs. Louise M. Bullman, teacher of type- 
writing, High School of Commerce, Springfield, 
Massachusetts; to Mr. Harold Adin Nomer, teacher 
of English and public speaking, the Lawrenceville 
School; to Mr. Karl F. Adams, principal of the 
High School of Commerce, Omaha, Nebraska; and to 
the teachers of the English department of the Technical 
High School, Springfield, Massachusetts. 

For permission to use selections from certain of their 
publications, thanks are due to: 

Charles Scribner's Sons for two paragraphs from "A 
Friend of Justice" and "Little Rivers," by Henry van 
Dyke; The Review of Reviews for passage from President 
Wheeler's article on football; "All the Days of My Life," 
by Amelia E. Barr, and three letters from "Life and Letters 
of Thomas Henry Huxley"; Hall & Locke Co. for selection 
from "Vocations"; Henry Holt and Company for letter 
from Charles Lamb to Wordsworth, from Lockwood & 
Kelly's "Letters that Live"; The Atlantic Monthly for 
selection from "Telephone" by Joseph Husband; Yale 
University Press for passage from "Hindrances to Good 



PREFACE 7 

Citizenship," by James Bryce; The Outlook for excerpt 
from George Kennan's article on "Vesuvius" in The Out- 
look of July 7, 1906; G. P. Putnam's Sons for citations from 
"The American Business Woman," by John H. Cromwell; 
Harper & Brothers for extracts from "Jane Eyre," by Char- 
lotte Bronte, and "Imagination in Business," by Lorin F. 
Deland; Doubleday, Page & Company for extracts from 
"The Octopus," by Frank Norris, and "The Empire of 
Business," by Andrew Carnegie; A. W. Shaw Company 
for quotations from "System"; Victor Talking Machine 
Company for "Tone" advertisement; Houghton Mifflin 
Company for quotations from Maxwell's "Salesmanship"; 
Chamber of Commerce of New York for Baron Rosen's 
speech at the banquet of the Chamber, November 21, 1907; 
The Macmillan Company for excerpts from "The New 
New York," by John C. Van Dyke, and from "The Soul of 
the Far East," by Percival Lowell; Mr. E. C. Hill of The 
Sun, for the account of the Yale-Taft dinner. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER - PAGE 

I. Purpose, Plan, Presentation in Speaking and 

Writing 13*" 

Application of Principles 15 *■""" 

II. A General Study of the Paragraph 26 <_^ 

The Duty of a Paragraph 28 c— 

Paragraphs in a Series 30 *— ' 

III. The Grammar of the Sentence 42*— 

Definition of a Sentence 42 

Kinds of Sentences According to Use 45 

Declarative 45 

Interrogative 45 

Exclamatory 46 

Imperative 46 

The Entire Subject and the Entire Predicate 46 l-« 

Normal Order 46 

Inverted Order 48 

Base and Modifiers 51 

The Structure of Sentences . 55 

Simple . 56 

Complex 57 

Compound 59 

TV. Essentials of Oral Grammar 65 

Rules and Exercises for Oral Practice 66 

V. Capitals and Punctuation 93 

VI. Word Study 123 

The Importance of Words 123 

How to Broaden the Vocabulary 123 

The Origin, Growth, and Decay of Words 124 

The Power of Words 126 

Syllabication 142 

Common Rules for Spelling 144 

General Words Frequently Misspelled 146 

Business Words 155 

Technical Words 158 

VII. The Rhetoric of the Sentence 161 

Unity 161 

Coherence 166 

Emphasis 169 

9 



10 . CONTENTS 

VIII. The Rhetoric of the Paragraph 177 

Unity 177 

Coherence 182 

Mass 186 

IX. Kinds of Paragraphs 190 

Narrative . 190 

Newspaper Narrative 196 

Descriptive 200 

Expository 205 „- 

Argumentative 214f^ 

X. Social Correspondence 223 

Introductory 223 

The Parts of a Social Letter 223 

The Heading 223 

The Salutation 223 

The Body : . . . 224 

The Complimentary Close 224 

The Signature 224 

Invitations and Replies 228 

XI. A General Study of the Business Letter 231 

The Parts of a Business Letter ..." 233 

The Heading . 233 

The Introductory Address 235 

The Salutation 238 

The Body 239 

The Complimentary Close 239 

The Signature 240 

Folding a Letter 243 

The Envelope 246 

XII. The Essential Qualities of a Business Letter . . 251 

Brevity 251 

Clearness 252 

Accuracy 252 

Courtesy _ _ 252 

Completeness and Orderliness of Presentation 253 

XIII. Oral Aspects of Business Communications 257 

The Dictation of Business Letters 257 

The Telephone Message ■ 261 

XIV. Parliamentary Procedure 264 

The Dramatization of a Business Meeting 264 

Additional Suggestions for Ordinary Procedure .... 269 

XV. After-Dinner Speaking 272 

Introductory 272 

Successful Qualities of an After-Dinner Speech .... 277 

Planning an After-Dinner Speech 279 

Delivering an J fter-Dinner Speech 280 



CONTENTS 11 

APPENDIX 

A. The Parts of Speech 283 

Nouns 283 

Pronouns 285 

Adjectives 287 

Verbs 289 

Adverbs 301 

Conjunctions 302 

Prepositions 303 

Interjections 303 

B. Model Extracts and Model Outlines 304 

Narrative 304 

Descriptive 307 

Expository 308 

Argumentative 311 

C. Model Letters of Application 315 

D. Grammar Practice 317 



EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 



Chapter I 

PURPOSE, PLAN, AND PRESENTATION IN SPEAKING 
AND WRITING 

" The difference between men who succeed and 
men who fail," says James Bryce, "is not so much 
as we commonly suppose due to differences in 
intellectual capacity. The difference which counts 
for most is that between activity and slackness; 
between the man who, observing alertly and re- 
flecting incessantly, anticipates contingencies before 
they occur, and the lazy, easy-going, slowly-moving 
man who is roused with difficulty, will not trouble 
himself to look ahead, and so being taken unpre- 
pared loses or misuses the opportunities that lead 
to fortune." 

In no field of endeavor is success more depend- 
ent upon anticipating contingencies before they 
arise than in writing or speaking. He who would 
succeed in any kind of composition activity must 
be able to see the end toward which he is direct- 
ing his own and another's thoughts. He must be 

13 



14 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

capable of appreciating at the outset what ideas 
will help him accomplish his purpose; he must 
know the relative value of his thoughts so that he 
can arrange them in an effective order; and, finally, 
he must throw himself heart and soul into his work 
and write or speak with enthusiasm, sincerity, and 
conviction. 

The success of an advertiser's work, for example, 
depends largely upon his ability to awaken in the 
public a desire for what he has to supply, whether 
it be entertainment, service, merchandise, or what 
not. To attain this object he familiarizes himself 
with whatever he wishes to advertise so that he can 
exhibit its special advantages in the most telling 
way. He selects such qualities as he believes will 
appeal most strongly to those for whom his spe- 
cialty is designed. He omits or barely mentions 
certain attributes, and emphasizes others. He 
then organizes this selected material and presents 
it in a form both striking and convincing. 

In the same way, it will be well for us, in our 
work throughout this book, to familiarize ourselves 
with the details of each problem, in order to de- 
termine: first, what we wish to say (our purpose) ; 
second, how we can plan our material (the selection 
and arrangement of our ideas) ; and, lastly, how we 
can present our thoughts so as to make them direct, 
clear, and forceful (our composition). 

These basic principles may be expressed in the 
following form. 



PURPOSE, PLAN, AND PRESENTATION 15 

I. Purpose : the specific aim for which the writing 
or speaking is done 

II. Plan or Outline : 

A. Selection of ideas to meet the purpose 

B. Arrangement of ideas to meet the purpose 
HI. Presentation : speaking or writing with direct- 
ness, clearness, and force 

Exercise 1. — Oral and Written 

(Application of Principles) 

l. Determine upon a specific purpose, and select 
those topics which will be effective in developing any 
one of the following subjects. 

1. The uses of electricity in the advertising business. 

2. The uses of electricity in transportation. 

3. The uses of electricity in transmitting messages. 

4. The uses of electricity in home life. 

Model outline: 

I. Purpose : to show the advantages of electricity 

in lighting 

II. Plan: 

A. Advantages in indoor lighting 

1. Safety 4. Cost 

2. Comfort 5. Quality of the light 

3. Convenience 

B. Advantages in outdoor lighting 

1. Convenience in the method of starting 

2. Cost 

3. Quality of the light 

Note: All disadvantages are kept out. They would be 
foreign to the subject. All other ideas connected with elec- 



16 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

tricity except the one of its advantages are, because of the 
purpose, excluded. 

2. Make a list of ideas about electricity suggested 
by your subject which, if introduced, would make your 
composition rambling. 

3. Imagine you are a high school boy who wishes to 
secure subscribers for the Saturday Evening Post With 
such a purpose in mind, select and arrange the argu- 
ments you would use in trying to place this publication 
in a home the spirit of which is reflected by any one of 
the following replies: (1) " I don't want it." (2) " Call 
again." (3) " I am too busy to talk to-day." (4) " I'll, 
think it over." (5) "I take too many magazines." 
(6) "I can't afford it." (7) "I'm too busy to read it." 

4. Develop into an oral composition the plan pro- 
duced in the preceding exercise. 

5. In the following description what particular char- 
acteristic of the room is it the purpose of the author 
to present? 

The red room was a spare chamber, very seldom slept in; 
yet it was one of the largest and stateliest chambers in the 
mansion. A bed, supported on massive pillars of mahogany, 
hung with curtains of deep red damask, stood out like a tab- 
ernacle in the center; the two large windows, with their blinds 
always drawn down, were half shrouded in festoons and falls 
of similar drapery ; the carpet was red ; the table at the foot 
of the bed was covered with a crimson cloth; the walls were 
a soft fawn color, with a blush of pink in it; the wardrobe, 
the toilet table, the chairs, were of darkly-polished old ma- 
hogany. Out of these deep surrounding shades rose high and 
glared white, the piled-up mattresses and pillows of the bed, 
spread with a snowy Marseilles counterpane. Scarcely less 
prominent was an ample, cushioned easy-chair near the head. 



PURPOSE, PLAN, AND PRESENTATION 17 

of the bed, also white, with a footstool before it; and look- 
ing, as I thought, like a pale throne. This room was chill, 
because it seldom had a fire; it was silent, because remote 
from the nursery and kitchen; solemn, because it was known 

to be seldom entered. 

Charlotte Bronte: Jane Eyre. 
(Adapted) 

6. From the foregoing select those details which give 
a picture of the room as a whole; those which picture 
the room in detail; those which give the general effect 
to the onlooker. What is the value of the order in 
which these points are presented? 

7. With the distinct purpose of showing that this is 
a very old room, rewrite this description using the sub- 
joined outline. 

Plan: 

A. Room as a whole 

1 

2 

3 

etc. (if more) 

B. Room in detail 

1 

2 

3 

etc. (if more) 

C. General effect of the room 

8. With these descriptions of rooms in mind, write 
a description on one of the following subjects. De- 
termine upon a purpose in making this description; 
base the plan on this purpose. If the plan differs from 
the foregoing model outline, give the reason. 



18 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

1. A dressing room in confusion. 

2. School lunch room at recess. 

3. Our dining room on Christmas morning. 

4. The engine room on a steamer. 

5. The main floor of a store, Christmas week. 

6. A millinery department of a large store at a spring 
opening. 

7. A dining room at a church social. 

8. A subway station at midnight. 

9. A subway station during rush hour. 
10. A waiting room at the dentist's. 

9. Study the following description to determine its 
purpose. Read that part which most clearly shows 
the purpose of the author in writing it. Gather 
all the other points that contribute to the purpose. 
Could any of the topics be omitted without loss to 
the purpose? 

The table was taken as if by assault; the clatter of iron 
knives upon the tin plates was as the reverberation of 
hail upon a metal roof. The ploughmen rinsed their 
throats with great draughts of wine, and, their elbows 
wide, their foreheads flushed, resumed the attack upon 
the beef and bread, eating as though they would never 
have enough. All up and down the long table, where the 
kerosene lamps reflected themselves deep in the oilcloth 
cover, one heard the incessant sounds of mastication and 
saw the uninterrupted movement of great jaws. At every 
moment one or another of the men demanded a fresh por- 
tion of beef, another pint of wine, another half-loaf of 
bread. For upwards of an hour the gang ate. It was no 
longer supper. It was a veritable barbecue, a rude and 

primitive feasting, barbaric, homeric. 

Frank Norms: The Octopus. 



PURPOSE, PLAN, AND PRESENTATION 19 

10. Write a description of a meal at a "quick- 
lunch room." Determine upon a definite purpose, 
and from this construct a plan (e.g., the purpose may 
be to show the slow service in the "quick-lunch" 
room, or the untidiness of the place, or the hunger of 
the crowd). 

11. Examine the following business letter. For what 
purpose was it written ? What ideas were selected to 
meet this purpose ? Outline the letter to show the 
reason for the writer's arrangement of his thoughts. 

Note the position of (a) the firm name, (6) the 
place and date of writing, (c) the name of the person 
addressed, (d) the salutation, (e) the opening sen- 
tence of the letter, (/) the relative position of the 
first word of every paragraph, (g) the complimentary 
close, (h) the signature. Observe carefully the punc- 
tuation of these parts of the letter. Read, in connec- 
tion with this study, model letter, Chapter XI. 

NORMAN J. WHITE FRANK J. PARKMAN WILLIAM G. CLARK 

President Vice-President Treasurer 

ALLIED STORES COMPANY 

White, Parkman $ Clark Store 

Buffalo, N. Y., Oct. 26, 1916. 
Mr. Henry R. Williams, 

225 Brown St., 
Buffalo, N. Y. 

My dear Sir: 

When the Allied Stores Company was incorporated, 
an opportunity was given to subscribe to its stock; but 
as there was no immediate need for funds, no special effort 



20 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

was made to secure stockholders. Many friends and 
patrons of this store have welcomed an opportunity to 
share in its prosperity and we believe that there are many 
others who would gladly avail themselves of this unusual 
chance if they were acquainted with the strong features of 
this desirable investment. 

Splendid progress is being made in the fine six-story 
structure which will be a part of the completed Buffalo 
store. Up to the present, this building has been erected 
largely out of the profits of the business and now, as funds 
will be required for its completion, a portion of the stock 
outstanding will be sold to local investors. 

In distributing this stock among our patrons, we pre- 
fer that it be sold in small lots, for our chief reason in 
this method of sale is to secure a large number of share- 
holders who thereby become partners with us in the busi- 
ness, giving us their loyal support. 

With the period of business depression now nearly 
over, we are on the threshold of the greatest era of pros- 
perity this country has ever known, and in the face of the 
coming good times, this opportunity to share in the profits 
of a combination of big successful stores looks doubly 
attractive. 

If you are in doubt about any phase of this invest- 
ment, or should like to know more about this exceptional 
opportunity, mail the inclosed card and our representative 
will be pleased to call upon you. 

Very truly yours, 

William G. Clark, Treasurer 

12. What is the purpose of the following student let- 
ter? What facts ordinarily helpful under such circum- 
stances are omitted ? What information is introduced 
that has no bearing upon the purpose? Rewrite this 
crude letter. Make it direct, definite, clear. 



PURPOSE, PLAN, AND PRESENTATION 21 

Springfield, Mass., March 28, 1922. 

Superintendent of N. Y. C. R. R., 

New York, N. Y. 
Dear Sir: 

On arriving in Springfield, on the 8 : 45 a.m. train Fri- 
day, I immediately discovered the absence of my valise. It 
is a black, doctor's valise, bearing the initials J. T. The rea- 
son that I prize the valise is that it is made of the best 
morocco leather obtainable, and secondly, the valise contained 
a pearl necklace which I bought for my wife's birthday. The 
train I was on reached New York at 12 o'clock. 

Hoping to hear from you as to the success of the search, 

I remain , T , 

Yours truly, T , „,, ,., 

Jacob Inorndike 

13. Write a business letter on any one of the following 
subjects. Determine upon a purpose. Make an out- 
line to meet this purpose. For the punctuation and 
arrangement of your letter, study model, page 232. 

1. Read the following advertisement. 

THE DESPLAND 

LARGEST AND MOST MODERN HOTEL AT 

DAYTONA 

ON THE FAMOUS FLORIDA "EAST COAST " 

NOW OPEN. Superb ocean beach, sea bathing, 
golf, tennis, boating, dancing, orchestra. Accom- 
modates 250. Many private baths. Hot and 
cold running water in practically every room; 
elevator, steam heat, electric fight. Superior 
Cuisine. Booklet on Application. 

Leon M. Waite, Mgr., Summer Hotel, 
Soo-Nipi Park Lodge, 
Lake Sunapee, N. H. 



22 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

a. You are a junior in the Orlando (Florida) High School. 
You wish to secure a position as bell boy in "The Despland." 
Apply for the position. See Appendix C. 

b. You expect to be in Daytona for a few days next 
winter with a party of eight. You wish to get information 
in advance as to the possible accommodations and rates for 
such a party, during the first week in January. Ask also 
for the booklet mentioned in the advertisement. 

2. You wish to resign, on account of numerous 
outside activities, from membership in a certain 
club. 

14. Compare the following social letter with the busi- 
ness letter given in Exercise 11. 

Method: Observe the difference in purpose, tone, and 
form. Read Chapter X. 

January 30, 1801. 
Dear Wordsworth, 

I ought before this to have replied to your very kind invi- 
tation into Cumberland. With you and your sister I could 
gang anywhere; but I am afraid whether I shall ever be able 
to afford so desperate a journey. Separate from the pleasure 
of your company, I don't much care if I never see a moun- 
tain in my life. I have passed all my days in London, until 
I have formed as many and intense local attachments as any 
of you mountaineers can have done with dead nature. The 
lighted shops of the Strand and Fleet Street; the innumer- 
able trades, tradesmen, and customers, coaches, wagons, 
playhouses; all the bustle round about Covent Garden; . . . 
the watchmen; life awake, at all hours of the night; the 
impossibility of being dull in Fleet Street; the crowds, the 
very dirt and mud, the sun shining upon houses and pave- 
ments, the print-shops, the old book-stalls, parsons cheapen- 



PURPOSE, PLAN, AND PRESENTATION 23 

ing books, coffee-houses, steams of soups from kitchens, the 
pantomimes — London itself a pantomime and a masquer- 
ade — all these things work themselves into my mind, and 
feed me, without a power of satiating me. The wonder of 
these sights impels me into night-walks about her crowded 
streets, and I often shed tears in the motley Strand from 
fulness of joy at so much life. All these emotions must be 
strange to you ; so are your rural emotions to me. But con- 
sider, what must I have been doing all my life not to have 
lent great portions of my heart with usury to such scenes? 

My attachments are all local, purely local. I have no 
passion or have had none since I was in love, and then 
it was the spurious engendering of poetry and books, for 
groves and valleys. The rooms where I was born, the fur- 
niture which has been before my eyes all my life, a book- 
case which has followed me about like a faithful dog (only 
exceeding him in knowledge), wherever I have moved, old 
chairs, old tables, streets, squares, where I have sunned 
myself; my old school — these are my mistresses. Have I 
not enough, without your mountains? I do not envy you. 
I should pity you, did I not know that the mind will make 
friends of anything. Your sun, and moon, and skies, and 
hills, and lakes, affect me no more, or scarcely come to me 
in more venerable characters, than as a gilded room with 
tapestry and tapers, where I might live with handsome 
visible objects. I consider the clouds above me but as a 
roof beautifully painted, but unable to satisfy the mind: 
and at last, like the pictures of the apartment of the con- 
noisseur, unable to afford him any longer a pleasure. So 
fading upon me, from disuse, have been the beauties of 
Nature, as they have been confinedly called; so ever fresh, 
and green, and warm are all the inventions of men, and 
assemblies of men in this great city. I should certainly 
have laughed with dear old Joanna. 

Give my kindest love, and my sister's, to D. and your- 



24 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

self; and a kiss from me to little Barbara Lewthwaite. 

Thank you for liking my play. ~ T . 

Li. Lamb 

15. Write a social letter upon any one of the fol- 
lowing subjects. 

1. A "hike" — the crowd, the trip, the building of the 
fire, the cooking of the meal, the lunch, the fishing, and the 
results. 

2. A school social — plans, their execution, the social, 
results. The closing of the school year, the coming gradu- 
ation, summer anticipations. 

3. Affairs of interest at home — the new tennis court. 
Changes at school — the new gymnasium apparatus, the 
new instructor, his plans for forming classes in wrestling 
and boxing. Doings at the Club. 

16. Write a story with the purpose of showing hero- 
ism during a fire. in the cutting room of a shirt-waist 
factory. (Consult model narrative outline, Appendix 
B. Consult also revision questions, Chapter IX.) 

17. Your purpose is to convince your teacher that 
no home work should be given over Sunday. Prove 
that Monday should be used in a review of the pre- 
ceding week's work. Select only those topics that 
will convince her as to the truth of your proposition. 
Reject all others. Arrange in the order of impor- 
tance, putting the strongest last, the evidence you are 
able to gather. (Consult model argumentative out- 
line, Appendix B. Consult also revision questions, 
Chapter IX.) 

18. Relate orally the career of some man of busi- 
ness to show how imagination was the secret of his 
success. If possible, choose a man of your town. 



PURPOSE, PLAN, AND PRESENTATION 25 

19. Relate orally the career of Dorothea Dix. 
Show how her love of humanity made her a power in 
two hemispheres. 

General Summary 

A careful consideration of the varied models 
of this chapter, together with the exercises as- 
signed for practice, should show that purpose and 
plan are the essential prerequisites for all kinds 
of composition activities. 



Chapter II 

A GENERAL STUDY OF THE PARAGRAPH 

Read carefully the following extract. Why is 
the first sentence indented? State the central idea 
of the paragraph in a single sentence. Is there a 
sentence in which it is expressed? Give the para- 
graph a title based on the central idea. Show how 
all the numerous details are related to this central 
idea. In what way do they help to distinguish the 
Broadway of Tokio from other streets? Make an 
outline which shows the various attractions of the 
street described, and the interesting details about 
these attractions. 

To stroll down the Broadway of Tokio of an evening is a 
liberal education in everyday art. As you enter it, there 
opens out in front of you a fairylike vista of illumination. 
Two long lines of gaily lighted shops, stretching off into the 
distance, look out across two equally endless rows of torchlit 
booths, the decorous yellow gleam of the one contrasting 
strangely with the demoniacal red flare of the other. This 
perspective of pleasure fulfills its promise. As your feet fol- 
low your eyes, you find yourself in a veritable shoppers' para- 
dise, the galaxy of twinkle resolving into worlds of delight. 
Nor do you long remain a mere spectator ; for the shops open 
their arms to you. No cold glass reveals their charms only 
to shut you off. Their wares lie invitingly exposed to the 
public, seeming to you already half your own. At the very 

26 



GENERAL STUDY OF THE PARAGRAPH 27 

first you come to, you stop involuntarily, lost in admiration 
over what you take to be bric-a-brac. It is only afterwards 
you learn that the object of your ecstasy was the commonest 
of kitchen crockery. Next door you halt again, this time in 
front of some leathern pocketbooks, stamped with designs in 
color to tempt you instantly to empty your wallet for more 
new ones than you will ever have the means to fill. If you 
do succeed in tearing yourself away pursewhole, it is only to 
fall a victim to some painted fans of so exquisite a make and 
decoration that escape, short of possession, is impossible. 
Opposed as stubbornly as you may be to idle purchase at 
home, here you will find yourself the prey of an acute case of 
shopping fever before you know it. Nor will it be much con- 
solation subsequently to discover that you have squandered 
your patrimony upon the most ordinary articles of every- 
day use. If in despair you turn for refuge to the booths, you 
will but have delivered yourself into the embrace of still 
more irresistible fascinations ; for the nocturnal squatters 
are there for the express purpose of catching the susceptible. 
The shops were modestly attractive from their nature, but 
the booths deliberately make eyes at you, and with telling 
effect. The very atmosphere is bewitching. The lurid 
smurkiness of the torches lends an appropriate weirdness 
to the figure of the uncouthly clad pedlar who, with the po- 
liteness of the archfiend himself, displays to an eager group 
the fatal fascinations of some new conceit. Here the latest 
thing in inventions, a guttapercha rat, which, for reasons 
best known to the vender, scampers about squeaking with 
a mimicry to shame the original, holds an admiring crowd 
spellbound with mingled trepidation and delight. There a 
native zoetrope, indefatigable round of pleasure, whose top 
fashioned after the type of a turbine wheel enables a candle 
at the centre ingeniously to supply both illumination and 
motive power at the same time, affords to as many as can 
find room on its circumference a peep at the composite antics 



28 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

of a consecutively pictured monkey in the act of jumping a 
box. Beyond this "wheel of life" lies spread out on a mat 
a most happy family of curios, the whole of which you are 
quite prepared to purchase en bloc; while a little farther 
on stands a flower show which seems to be coyly beckoning 
to you, as the blossoms nod their heads to an imperceptible 
breeze. So one attraction fairly jostles its neighbor for rec- 
ognition from the gay thousands that like yourself stroll past 
in holiday delight. Chattering children in brilliant colors, 
voluble women and talkative men in quieter but no less pic- 
turesque costumes, stream on in kaleidoscopic continuity. 
And you, carried along by the current, wander thus for miles 
with the tide of pleasure seekers, till, late at night, when 
at last you turn reluctantly homeward, you feel as one does 
when wakened from some too delightful dream. 

Percival Lowell: The Soul of the Far East. 

What do you note about the length of the fol- 
lowing paragraph? What is its central idea? How 
many sentences does the author use in conveying 
that idea? 

All that progressives ask or desire is permission — in an 
era when "development," "evolution," is the scientific word 
— to interpret the Constitution according to the Darwinian 
principle; all they ask is recognition of the fact that a nation 
is a living thing and not a machine. 

Woodrow Wilson: The New Freedom. 

1. The Duty of the Paragraph. — Thoughts 
which are closely related to one another and 
which help to develop one central or dominating 
idea, are grouped together. Occasionally our 
thoughts upon a single topic can be expressed in 
a single sentence. Such is the case in dialogue 



GENERAL STUDY OF THE PARAGRAPH 29 

and in certain kinds of business letters. More 
often, as in the first illustration, the topic is of 
such breadth that it requires a series of sentences 
for its development. In such an instance, because 
all the sentences have contributed to one main 
thought and have been closely related to one 
another, a singleness of impression is secured. 
The first duty of a paragraph, then, is to convey 
a sense of oneness among the related parts in 
their general effect. A paragraph, therefore, may 
be (a) a single sentence developing one topic, or 
(b) a group of closely related sentences develop- 
ing one topic. 

From this we can see that every paragraph 
has a purpose. In the description from "The 
Soul of the Far East," the purpose was expressed 
in the first sentence. The sentences which fol- 
lowed helped to illustrate the opening assertion 
that "to stroll down the Broadway of Tokio of 
an evening is a liberal education in everyday 
art." 

Furthermore, every sentence of a paragraph must 
contribute to the paragraph purpose. Your anal- 
ysis of Lowell's description will show how every 
sentence aims to develop the idea of the knowl- 
edge to be gained by a stroll down this famous 
business street. Thus the sentences in every 
paragraph, as in the foregoing illustration, must 
show teamwork; they must all work together to 
make the general purpose effective. To use a 



30 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

sentence which does not contribute to the para- 
graph purpose is like inviting one. of your oppo- 
nents to help you play against your rivals. 

The paragraph purpose is often expressed in 
the opening or closing sentence, known as the 
topic sentence. Many paragraphs, perfect in con- 
struction, are frequently so organized as to leave 
to the reader himself the task of determining the 
writer's purpose. In such instances, the purpose 
is so evident that it may easily be summarized in 
a sentence of the reader's invention. 

A clear-cut expression of the purpose of the 
paragraph assists (a) the writer in the presenta- 
tion of his thought, for it supplies the foundation 
upon which he may build his paragraph; and 
(b) the reader in discovering instantly the cen- 
tral idea which the writer is about to develop. 

Exercise 2. — Written 
Write a single paragraph: 

1. In which the topic is developed in a single sentence. 

2. In which the paragraph opens with the topic sen- 
tence and is developed in detail by closely related sentences. 

Note: The teacher will be wise in making sure that 
the topic ideas are not too broad. Such subjects as "A 
Circus Parade," " The Street I Live on," " My Favorite 
Amusement," etc., ought to lend themselves to adequate 
treatment. 

2. Paragraphs in a Series. — Thus far we have 
centered interest on the isolated paragraph. But 



GENERAL STUDY OF THE PARAGRAPH 31 

the subject under consideration may be so broad 
that an attempt to handle it in a single paragraph 
would bewilder the reader and give an unwieldi- 
ness of effect. Therefore, we have to resort to the 
use of related paragraphs. Read the following 
exposition. 

Wealth has hitherto been distributed in three ways: the 
first and chief one is by willing it at death to the family. 
Now, beyond bequeathing to those dependent upon one the 
revenue needful for modest and independent living, is such a 
use of wealth either right or wise? I ask you to think over 
the result, as a rule, of millions given over to young men and 
women, the sons and daughters of the millionaire. You will 
find that, as a rule, it is not good. Nothing is truer than 
this, that as a rule the "almighty dollar" bequeathed to sons 
or daughters by millions proves an almighty curse. It is 
not the good of the child which the millionaire parent con- 
siders when he makes these bequests, it is his own vanity; 
it is not affection for the child, it is self-glorification for the 
parent which is at the root of this injurious disposition of 
wealth. There is only one thing to be said for this mode, it 
furnishes one of the most efficacious means of rapid distri- 
bution of wealth ever known. 

There is a second use of wealth, less common than the 
first, which is not so injurious to the community, but which 
should bring no credit to the testator. Money is left by 
millionaires to public institutions when they must relax their 
grasp on it. There is no grace, and can be no blessing, in 
giving what cannot be withheld. It is no gift, because it is 
not cheerfully given, but only granted at the stern summons 
of death. The miscarriage of these bequests, the litigation 
connected with them, and the manner in which they are 
frittered awav, seem to prove that the Fates do not regard 



32 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

them with a kindly eye. We are never without a lesson that 
the only mode of producing lasting good by giving large sums 
of money is for the millionaire to give as close attention to 
its distribution during his life as he did to its acquisition. 
We have to-day the noted case of five or six millions of dol- 
lars left by a great lawyer to found a public library in New 
York, an institution needed so badly that the failure of this 
bequest is a misfortune. It is years since he died; the will 
is pronounced invalid through a flaw, although there is no 
doubt of the intention of the donor. It is sad commentary 
upon the folly of men's holding the millions which they cannot 
use until they are unable to put them to the end they desire. 
Peter Cooper, Pratt of Baltimore, and Pratt of Brooklyn, 
and others are the type of men who should be taken by you 
as your model; they distributed their surplus during life. 

The third and the only noble use of surplus wealth, then, 
is this: that it be regarded as a sacred trust, to be admin- 
istered by its possessor, into whose hands it flows, for the 
highest good of the people. Man does not five by bread 
alone, and five or ten cents a day more revenue scattered 
over thousands would produce little or no good. Accumu- 
lated into a great fundi and expended as Peter Cooper ex- 
pended it for Cooper Institute, it establishes something that 
will last for generations. It will educate the brain, the 
spiritual part of man. It furnishes a ladder upon which the 
aspiring poor may climb; and there is no use whatever try- 
ing to help people who do not help themselves. You cannot 
push any one up a ladder unless he be willing to climb a 
little himself. Therefore, I have often said, and I now re- 
peat, that the day is coming, and already we see its dawn, 
in which the man who dies possessed of millions of available 
wealth which was free and in his hands ready to be distrib- 
uted will die disgraced. 

Andrew Carnegie : Wealth and Its Uses. 

(Adapted) 



GENERAL STUDY OF THE PARAGRAPH 33 

Exercise 3. — Oral Discussion 

What would be a fitting subject for this extract? 
What is the main purpose? What is the purpose 
of each of the three paragraphs? How does para- 
graph 2 connect with paragraph 1? Paragraph 3 
with paragraph 2? Give the reason for the order 
in which these paragraphs stand. Could the para- 
graphs possibly be combined into a single unit? 

Exercise 4. — Written 

The student athletes of a school get one of their 
number to write to a man who owns a lot near the 
school, for permission to use it as a baseball diamond. 
Write . the letter using the following divisions as 
paragraph topics. 

The reason for writing (the request for the use of the 
land). The handicap to the school in baseball competition 
with other schools. The advantages of a baseball team to 
the general spirit of the school. The advantages to the mem- 
bers of the team. The appreciation of teachers, students, 
and alumni if the request is granted. 

Bear in mind that the broad purpose of the letter 
is to persuade the owner of the land that it would 
mean much to the school to use his vacant lot as a 
baseball diamond. Note that each paragraph has a 
special purpose which contributes to the purpose of 
the student in writing the letter. Furthermore, 
observe that the paragraphs are related and arranged 
in a logical order, each an outgrowth of the preceding 
one and leading, by its subject matter, to the follow- 
ing one. 



34 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

Every paragraph in a series serves a definite pur- 
pose in the development of the whole. It is related 
to its neighbor, and demands, by virtue of its subject 
matter, a definite placing so that a logical and force- 
ful arrangement may be secured. The places of 
emphasis in the development of a composition of 
more than one paragraph are, as in the develop- 
ment of a single paragraph, the beginning and 
the end. 

A composition of several paragraphs is like a 
finely equipped train. To the engine are joined bag- 
gage car, passenger car, buffet car, dining car, parlor 
cars, and observation car. They are all joined to- 
gether in order to serve one main purpose, viz., to 
compose a train remarkable for its equipment; each 
car in itself is a unit that bears some relation to its 
neighboring cars; the cars are so arranged that the 
best effect for the passengers is secured. 

Exercise 5. — Oral 

1. Read each paragraph in the following selections: 
As a whole: (a) to discover its purpose, (6) to 
discover the sentence, if there is one, that stated 
this purpose (the topic sentence) and where it is 
placed in the paragraph, (c) to determine the rela- 
tion of the paragraph to its neighboring paragraph 
or paragraphs. 

Sentence by sentence: to determine (a) in what 
way each meets the purpose of the paragraph, (b) 
also in what way the sentences are related to one an- 
other, and (c) why they stand in the order in which 
they are found. 



GENERAL STUDY OF THE PARAGRAPH 35 

1. The supper had disposed every one to gayety and an 
old harper was summoned from the servants' hall, where he 
had been strumming all the evening, and to all appearance 
comforting himself with some of the Squire's home-brewed. 
He was a kind of hanger-on, I was told, of the establishment, 
and, though ostensibly a resident of the village, was oftener 
to be found in the Squire's kitchen than his own home, the 
old gentleman being fond of the sound of "harp in hall." 

The dance, like most dances after supper, was a merry 
one; some of the older folks joined in it, and the Squire him- 
self figured down several couple with a partner, with whom 
he affirmed he had danced at every Christmas for nearly 
half a century. Master Simon, who seemed to be a kind of 
connecting link between the old times and the new, and to be 
withal a little antiquated in the taste of his accomplishments, 
evidently piqued himself on his dancing, and was endeavor- 
ing to gain credit by the heel and toe, rigadoon, and other 
graces of the ancient school; but he had unluckily assorted 
himself with a little romping girl from boarding school, who, 
by her wild vivacity, kept him continually on the stretch, 
and defeated all his sober attempts at elegance : — such are 
the ill-assorted matches to which antique gentlemen are 
unfortunately prone! The young Oxonian, on the contrary, 
had led out one of his maiden aunts, on whom the rogue 
played a thousand little knaveries with impunity: he was 
full of practical jokes, and his delight was to tease his aunts 
and cousins; yet, like all madcap youngsters, he was a uni- 
versal favorite among the women. 

The most interesting couple in the dance was the young 
officer and a ward of the Squire's, a beautiful blushing girl 
of seventeen. From several shy glances which I had noticed 
in the course of the evening, I suspected there was a little 
kindness growing up between them; and, indeed, the young 
soldier was just the hero to captivate a romantic girl. He 
was tall, slender, and handsome, and, like most young 



36 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

British officers of late years, had picked up various small 
accomplishments on the continent; — he could talk French 
and Italian — draw landscapes — sing very tolerably — 
dance divinely; but, above all, he had been wounded at 
Waterloo: — what girl of seventeen, well read in poetry and 
romance, could resist such a mirror of chivalry and perfection! 
The moment the dance was over, he caught up a guitar, 
and, lolling against the old marble fireplace, in an attitude 
which I am half inclined to suspect was studied, began the 
little French air of the Troubadour. The Squire, however, 
exclaimed against having anything on Christmas eve but 
good old English; upon which the young minstrel, casting 
up his eye for a moment, as if in an effort of memory, struck 
into another strain, and, with a charming air of gallantry, 
gave Herrick's "Night Piece to Julia." 

The song might or might not have been intended in 
compliment to the fair Julia, for so I found his partner was 
called; she, however, was certainly unconscious of any 
such application, for she never looked at the singer, but 
kept her eyes cast upon the floor. Her face was suffused, 
it is true, with a beautiful blush, and there was a gentle 
heaving of the bosom, but all that was doubtless caused by 
the exercise of the dance; indeed, so great was her indiffer- 
ence, that she amused herself with plucking to pieces a 
choice bouquet of hothouse flowers, and by the time the 
song was concluded the nosegay lay in ruins on the floor. 

The party now broke up for the night with the kind- 
hearted old custom of shaking hands. As I passed through 
the hall, on my way to my chamber, the dying embers of 
the Yule log still sent forth a dusky glow, and had it not 
been the season when "no spirit dares stir abroad," I should 
have been half tempted to steal from my room at midnight, 
and peep whether the fairies might not be at their revels 
about the hearth. Washington Irving: The Sketch-Book. 



GENERAL STUDY OF THE PARAGRAPH 37 

2. Andre's story is the one overmastering romance of 
the Revolution. His youth, grace, and accomplishments won 
the affection of his guard and the sympathy of the whole 
army. In all the glittering splendor of the full uniform and 
ornaments of his rank, in the presence of the whole Ameri- 
can army, without the quiver of a muscle or sign of fear, 
the officers about him weeping, the bands playing the dead 
march, he walked to execution. To those around, he cried, 
"I call upon you to witness that I die like a brave man," 
and swung into eternity. 

America had a parallel case in Captain Nathan Hale. 
When no one else would go upon a most important and peril- 
ous mission, he volunteered and was captured by the British. 
He was ordered to execution the next morning. When asked 
what he had to say, he replied: "I regret I have but one life 
to lose for my country." 

The dying declarations of Andre and Hale express the 
animating spirit of their several armies, and teach why, 
with all her power, England could not conquer America. 
"I call upon you to witness that I die like a brave man," 
said Andre; and he spoke from British and Hessian sur- 
roundings, seeking only glory and pay. "I regret I have 
but one life to lose for my country," said Hale; and with 
him and his comrades self was forgotten in that passionate 
patriotism which pledges fortune, honor, and life to the 

sacred cause. 

Chauncey M. Depew: Orations and Speeches. 

2. Separate the following selection into para- 
graphs, the topics of which are: the magic draught; 
its effect; the reaction. 

There, in fact, stood the four glasses, brimful of this won- 
derful water, the delicate spray of which, as it effervesced 
from the surface, resembled the tremulous glitter of dia- 
monds. It was now so nearly sunset that the chamber had 



38 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

grown duskier than ever ; but a mild and moonlike splendor 
gleamed from within the vase, and rested alike on the four 
guests, and on the doctor's venerable figure. He sat in a 
high-backed, elaborately carved oaken armchair, with a gray 
dignity of aspect that might have well befitted that very 
Father Time, whose power had never been disputed, save 
by this fortunate company. Even while quaffing the third 
draught of the Fountain of Youth, they were almost awed 
by the expression of his mysterious visage. But, the next 
moment, the exhilarating gush of young life shot through 
their veins. They were now in the happy prime of youth. 
Age, with its miserable train of cares, and sorrows, and dis- 
eases, was remembered only as the trouble of a dream, from 
which they had joyously awoke. The fresh gloss of the 
soul, so early lost, and without which the world's successive 
scenes had been but a gallery of faded pictures, again threw 
its enchantment over all their prospects. They felt like 
newcreated beings, in a newcreated universe. They were a 
group of merry youngsters, almost maddened with the exu- 
berant frolicksomeness of their years. The most singular 
effect of their gaiety was an impulse to mock the infirmity 
and decrepitude of which they had so lately been the vic- 
tims. They laughed loudly at their old-fashioned attire, 
the wideskirted coats and flapped waistcoasts of the young 
men, and the ancient cap and gown of the blooming girl. 
One limped across the floor, like a gouty grandfather; one 
set a pair of spectacles astride of his nose, and pretended to 
pore over the black letter pages of the book of magic; a 
third seated himself in an armchair, and strove to imitate 
the venerable dignity of Dr. Heidegger. Then all shouted 
mirthfully, and leaped about the room. The Widow Wich- 
erly — if so fresh a damsel could be called a widow — tripped 
up to the doctor's chair, with a mischievous merriment in 
her rosy face. And then they stood still and shivered; for 
it seemed as if gray Time were calling them back from 



GENERAL STUDY OF THE PARAGRAPH 39 

their sunny youth, far down into the chill and darksome 
vale of years. They looked at old Dr. Heidegger, who sat 
in his armchair, holding the rose of half a century, which 
he had rescued from among the fragments of the shattered 
vase. At the motion of his hand, the four rioters resumed 
their seats; the more readily, because their violent exer- 
tions had wearied them, youthful though they were. They 
shivered again. A strange chillness, whether of the body 
or spirit they could not tell, was creeping gradually over them 
all. They gazed at one another, and fancied that each fleet- 
ing moment snatched away a charm, and left a deepening 
furrow where none had been before. Was it an illusion? 
Had the changes of a lifetime been crowded into so brief a 
space, and were they now four aged people, sitting with their 
old friend, Dr. Heidegger? 

3. Paragraph the following letter. Make a suit- 
able heading, introduction, and complimentary close 
for it. (See Chapter XI for the parts of a business 
letter.) 

We are in receipt of your letter of June 16, in which 
you ask for information concerning our summer hotel, with 
especial reference to opportunities for amusement and exer- 
cise. By this mail, we are sending you, under separate 
cover, an illustrated booklet describing both our indoor and 
outdoor sports. This pamphlet should give you a clear 
conception of the care we have taken to offer our patrons, 
at a very moderate cost, every conceivable kind of oppor- 
tunity for pleasurable recreation in a modern hotel and in 
one of the most beautiful sections of the Shenandoah Valley. 
This booklet contains, however, no mention of the Turkish 
baths which we are now installing and which should be 
completed by September 1, the date when we note you 
wish to begin your vacation. The work is being done by 



40 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

the same firm that constructed the popular Fleischman 
baths of your city and the contract calls for an exact repro- 
duction of those baths, allowing for changes due to progress 
made since the Fleischman baths were constructed, five 
years ago. We are inclosing a little pamphlet by Dr. James 
O. Rice, the famous nerve specialist, who highly endorses 
Turkish baths for one in the condition in which you de- 
scribe yourself. The price of a single bath to the patrons of 
our hotel will be one dollar, or twelve baths for ten dollars. 
We should like to call your careful attention, however, if 
this method of bathing does not appeal to you, to the de- 
scription of our natural hot baths mentioned in our own 
illustrated booklet, page 16. 

4. Outline the following subjects for letters, show- 
ing the purpose of the whole letter, the purpose and 
arrangement of each paragraph in the series neces- 
sary to develop the subject as a whole. (Consult 
Chapters IX and X.) 

1. Letter describing a new golf course. 

2. Letter describing the appointments of your father's 
new office. 

3. Letter explaining a plan for a walking trip. 

4. Letter to a school friend telling of a successful bas- 
ket ball game. 

5. Letter to convince a friend that he should join you 
in the country during his vacation. 

5. Write a series of related paragraphs on one of 
the following topics. (Consult Chapter IX.) 

1. The advantages of the typewriter. 

2. Recent improvements in typewriters. 

3. The necessity for accuracy and speed in operating 
a typewriter. 



GENERAL STUDY OF THE PARAGRAPH 41 

4. Kinds and uses of duplicating machines. 

5. The care of the typewriter. 

6. The chief industries of your town. 

7. The moving-picture theatre as a money-making 
project. 

8. The disadvantages of a "one-street business section." 

9. A comparison of land values in 'the various sec- 
tions of your town. 

10. The advantages of location in the success of any 
retail business. 

11. The value of the "life pack" to the aviator. 

12. Application of air propellers to water craft. 

13. A modern logging camp. 

14. Advantages of the various kinds of motors for 
automobiles. 

15. The utilization of the wastes and by-products of 
factories. 

16. Contrivances for fighting fire. 

17. The main causes of railroad accidents. 

18. The advantages of a lunch room within a modern 
department store. 

19. Roman letter-writing and writing materials. 

20. Devices that help motorists. 

21. The obstacles to good scholarship in our school. 

22. Ways of overcoming the obstacles to good scholar- 
ship in our school. 

23. Advantages to students of engaging in school 
activities. 

24. The value of a school magazine. 



Chapter III 

THE GRAMMAR OF THE SENTENCE 

1. Definition of a Sentence. — There is a mold 
into which we cast our thoughts when we speak or 
write that gives them completeness of expression. 
We may, for instance, picture to the reader or 
listener, the dark appearance of the sky by saying, 
the sky is dark or the dark sky. The picture suggested 
by the expression the dark sky is essentially the 
same as the one created by the expression the sky 
is dark, the only difference being in the forms in 
which the thought is expressed. The first group of 
words, however, on account of its form, leaves the 
mind suspended and waiting for something more; 
the second group of words, on account of its form, 
satisfies the mind, with a sense of completeness 
and finish. The sky is dark is a sentence; the 
dark sky is not. Whether a thought, then, is com- 
pletely expressed or not, depends upon the form 
in which it is cast. We may say, therefore, that 
a sentence is a thought expressed in complete 
form. 

Exercise 6. — Oral 

1. Read aloud the following extracts taken from 
compositions written by high school pupils. 

42 



THE GRAMMAR OF THE SENTENCE 43 

Reconstruct each of these extracts to make a com- 
plete sentence (a) by supplying missing elements, 
(b) by making appropriate substitutions, (c) by cor- 
recting punctuation and capitalization, or (d) by 
doing all three. 

1. He aimed his bow toward his friend and shot, the 
arrow went right into Pepper's mouth. 

2. The time came when the doors were opened, the house 
was not so crowded as usual. 

3. When it was time for the play to begin, Fred Langdon 
was disappointed. Because he could not have his way, he 
took his arrow home, this left the others without one. 

4. Their gallant captain spoke on the bravery of the 
company all through the war. Especially those who had lost 
their lives. 

5. He looked up but did not speak he could not he had 
a shock. 

6. In one of the New York tenements lives a little girl 
with her mother, these people are poor. 

7. In the middle of the ceiling hung an electric light the 
shade had a large hole in it. 

8. We punched a hole in the keg. Thrusting a fuse in 
we followed it to its end. 

9. As they sailed down the shore having a delightful time. 
The little boy saw a large cloud in the west. 

10. Down near the square a new block was being built, 
one of the boys proposed that we take all the lime barrels 
and set them afire. 

2. Read aloud the following selection. Pause at 
the end of every sentence long enough to feel con- 
sciously the completeness of its expression. 

A plain appeal for a plain but definite promise occasion- 
ally has gratifying results. I remember that one December, 



44 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

about ten years ago, I decided to send a New Year's 
greeting to a lot of debtors whose indebtedness we intended 
to wipe off the books as uncollectible at the then fast ap- 
proaching close of our fiscal year. The letter which we sent 
was pronounced by my superior officer, "About the silHest 
thing I ever saw." It started out with a more or less poetic 
reference to the dawn of the new year. We proceeded on 
the assumption that delinquent debtors are particularly 
conscious of their indebtedness on January 1, although I 
do not believe they are, nor that the emphasis laid on this 
point had anything to do with the success of our letter, ex- 
cept as it afforded a slightly different and decidedly less 
peremptory introduction than is found in most dunning 
letters. The important money-getting paragraph in this 
letter proved to be the following: 

"From what we believe to be true of you as a man, the 
fact that you have not paid us can mean but one thing; 
namely, that circumstances over which you have had no 
control have prevented you from paying. It would be an 
impertinence for us to inquire into those circumstances. 
They are a part of your own private affairs. All that we 
ask of you now is that you tell us when you will pay. If 
you name a date when you will pay, we know you will do 
it. Your statement of the exact date upon which we may 
expect payment will be helpful to us because we have the 
same problems of raising money that you have. We are a 
large concern, to be sure, but for the same reason that a 
farmer keeps no more horses in his stable than he needs to 
plough his corn, we keep no more money in our business 
than we actually need. Therefore when you write us when 
you will pay, a little cash will also be appreciated if you can 
spare it now, etc." 

You can't blame the man who called this a silly letter, 
yet it brought several hundred dollars in cash and promises 
that ultimately netted several thousand dollars. One of 



THE GRAMMAR OF THE SENTENCE 45 

the latter was from a gentleman who had been discharged 
in bankruptcy. He said: " I guess you don't know I am an 
adjudicated bankrupt and don't owe you a cent under the 
law. If you did, you wouldn't write me that way. I don't 
have to pay you, but I will on May 1." He did. 

William Maxwell: Salesmanship. 

3. Reproduce orally the foregoing selection. Pause 
long enough at the end of every sentence so that the 
class may feel the completeness of each of your 
thoughts. 

4. Write five sentences about the business street 
of your town, with the purpose of showing: (a) its 
attractiveness, or (6) its lack of space, or (c) its ad- 
vantages as a place for trade. 

Read your composition aloud to see if each sen- 
tence satisfies your ear by its completeness. 

2. Kinds of Sentences. — According to use there 
are four kinds of sentences : 

I. A declarative sentence. — It tells, declares, 
states, asserts something. A period is placed after 
it. 

Example: 

The sounding aisles of the dim wood rang 

To the anthem of the free. 

Felicia Hemans 

II. An interrogative sentence. — It asks a ques- 
tion. An interrogation point is placed after it. 

Example: 

Why, why repine, my pensive friend, 

At pleasures slipp'd away? 

Walter Savage Landor 



46 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

III. An exclamatory sentence. — It is used to 
express strong feeling or emotion. An exclamation 
point is placed after it. 

Example: 

How weary, stale, flat and unprofitable 
Seem to me all the uses of this world! 

William Shakespeare 

IV. An imperative sentence. — It is used in mak- 
ing a request, an entreaty, a command. A period 
is placed after it, 

Example: 

Recompense to no man evil for evil. 

The Bible 

Punctuation is often of immense service in de- 
termining the interpretation which we should 
give to a written sentence. Our thoughts are fre- 
quently accompanied by strong feelings. Some- 
times we are angry, sometimes happy; now we 
have feelings of love, now of pity, and, again, we 
are the victims of feelings of dislike or hatred. 
In speaking, we show these feelings by the tones 
of the voice, by the expression of the face, and by 
gestures. In writing, we have not these means of 
expressing emotions, but we use the exclamation 
mark to indicate that our thoughts are accom- 
panied by strong feeling or emotion. 

3. The Entire Subject and the Entire Predi- 
cate. Normal Order. — The complete sentence 
is composed of two main parts, subject and predi- 
cate. The entire subject of a sentence is that 



THE GRAMMAR OF THE SENTENCE 47 

part about which something is stated. In the sen- 
tence, "The breaking waves dashed high," the 
subject is the breaking waves because it is about 
them that something is stated. The entire predi- 
cate of a sentence is that part which states some- 
thing about the subject. Dashed high is the 
predicate of the foregoing sentence because it states 
something about the breaking waves. Subject and 
predicate are the essential parts of a sentence. 
In an imperative sentence, the subject is often 
understood. In this sentence from the Bible, 
" Give unto the Lord the glory due unto his name," 
the subject you is understood. 

Exercise 7. — Oral 

What kind of sentence is each of the following? 
Separate it into entire subject and entire predicate. 
Let one part name the subject of the thought and 
let the other part express what is thought about the 
subject. 

1. Cotton is a leading staple export of the United 
States. 

2. A large part of the yearly crop is sent to England. 

3. Many factories in England are dependent upon this 
crop. 

4. The United States supplies many countries of Europe 
with grain. 

5. Buenos Aires, the capital of Argentina, has a popula- 
tion of more than a million. 

6. Tobacco, first discovered in America, is grown in 
nearly every country in the world. 



48 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

7. The most common method of competition in business 
is that of underselling. 

8. A successful invention in one portion of a manufac- 
turing process urgently demands an equally effective ap- 
paratus in another. 

9. The business world is sparkling with romance and 
invention. 

10. The story of watchmaking in the United States is a 
story of triumph for the spirit of Americanism. 

4. The Entire Subject and the Entire Predi- 
cate. Inverted Order. — Often to secure smooth- 
ness, clearness, emphasis, variety, the normal 
order is changed. We speak of the parts of a sen- 
tence as being in the inverted order when (a) the 
entire predicate precedes the entire subject, as, 
At the door on summer evenings sat the little Hia- 
watha; (b) the entire subject is placed between 
parts of the entire predicate, as, From fearful 
trip, the victor ship comes in with object won. 

In an interrogative sentence, the inverted order 
is commonly used to give the sentence question 
form. 

Exercise 8. — Oral and Written 

1. When the following sentences have not the 
usual arrangement of parts (subject 1, predicate 2), 
give it to them. Note the loss in smoothness, variety, 
and ease of expression. 

A. Anyhow, here was the friendly well, in its old 
place, half way up the lane. Here the yoke-shoulder village 
folk were wont to come to fill their clinking buckets. They 
had flat wooden crosses inside each pail. On the top of the 



THE GRAMMAR OF THE SENTENCE 49 

pails these floated to keep the water from slopping over. 
We used to wonder by what magic this strange principle 

worked. 

Kenneth Grahame: The Golden Age. 
(Adapted) 

B. Here mystery lurked and peeped. The copse, too, 
proved vast in extent. When, at last, the wood opened and 
sloped down to a streamlet brawling forth into the sunlight, 
I was really glad. By this cheery companion I wandered 
along. Rapids, also, there were, telling of canoes and 
portages. At last, after what lapse of time I know not, my 
further course, though not the stream's, was barred by 
some six feet of stout wire netting. 

Kenneth Grahame: The Golden Age. 
(Adapted) 

2. In the following units state the relative posi- 
tion of subject and predicate in each sentence. Com- 
pare the two for (a) close relation of thoughts, (b) 
smoothness, (c) variety, (d) proper emphasis of 
parts. 

A. In the morning there was the steep hill beside the 
fall to climb; ... it was a road set on end. But Pichou 
flattened his back and strained his loins and dug his toes 
into the snow and would not give back an inch. When the 
rest of the team balked, the long whip slashed across their 
backs and recalled them to their duty. At last their leader 
topped the ridge, and the others struggled after him. Be- 
fore them stretched the great dead-water of the river, a 
straight white path to No-Man's-Land. The snow was 
smooth and level, and the crust was hard enough to bear. 
Pichou settled down to his work at a glorious pace. He 
seemed to know that he must do his best, and that some- 
thing important depended upon the quickness of his legs. 



50 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

On through the glittering solitude, on through the death- 
like silence sped the cometique, between the interminable 
walls of the forest, past the mouths of nameless rivers, under 
the shadow of grim mountains. At noon Dan Scott boiled 
his kettle and ate his bread and bacon. But there was 
nothing for the dogs, not even for Pichou; for discipline is 
discipline, and the best of sledge-dogs will not run well 
after he has been fed. 

Henry van Dyke: A Friend of Justice. 

B. The steep hill beside the fall was to be climbed in 
the morning; ... it was a road set on end. But Pichou 
flattened his back and strained his loins and dug his toes 
into the snow and would not give back an inch. The long 
whip slashed across their backs and recalled them to their 
duty when the rest of the team balked. Their leader at last 
topped the ridge, and the others struggled after him. The 
great dead-water of the river, a straight white path to No- 
Man's-Land, stretched before them. The snow was smooth 
and level, and the crust was hard enough to bear. Pichou 
settled down to his work at a glorious pace. He seemed to 
know that he must do his best, and that something important 
depended on the quickness of his legs. The cometique sped 
on through the glittering solitude, on through the death-like 
silence, between the interminable walls of the forest, past 
the mouths of nameless rivers, under the shadow of grim 
mountains. Dan Scott at noon boiled the kettle, and ate 
his bread and bacon. Nothing was there for the dogs, not 
even for Pichou; for discipline is discipline, and the best of 
sledge-dogs will not run well after he has been fed. 

3. Answer these questions so as to construct a para- 
graph the sentences of which will show variety in 
the placing of the subjects. 



THE GRAMMAR OF THE SENTENCE 51 

1. What are the two essential parts of a sentence? 

2. What is the usual position for the subject? the 
predicate? 

3. In what other parts of the sentence may the sub- 
ject be placed? 

4. What is gained by using the inverted order 
occasionally? 

5. Base and Modifiers. — The base of the 
subject is the necessary or principal part of the 
entire subject. In the sentence, "The lowing herd 
winds slowly o'er the lea," the principal part of 
the entire subject, the lowing herd, is herd. The 
base of the predicate is the necessary or principal 
part of the entire predicate. In the foregoing 
sentence, the principal part of the entire predi- 
cate, winds slowly o'er the lea, is winds. The base 
of the sentence is made up of the necessary parts 
(base of entire subject and base of entire predi- 
cate) of the two essential parts of the sentence 
(subject and predicate). In the preceding sen- 
tence, the base of the sentence is herd winds. 
This is the framework of the sentence. 

To make the meaning of the sentence more com- 
plete and definite, words or groups of words may be 
added to the basal elements. Such words or groups 
of words are called modifiers. In this way the 
and lowing modify herd, the base of the subject; 
and slowly and o'er the lea modify winds, the base 
of the predicate. 

Modifiers should always be placed as close as 
possible to the words they modify. 



52 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

Modifiers are of various forms — word, phrase, 
clause. 

Examples: 

The little bird sits at his door in the sun. 

James Russell Lowell 

I heard a thousand blended notes, 
While in a grove I sat reclined. 

William Wordsworth 

The and little are word modifiers, modifying 
bird; at his door and in the sun are phrase modifiers, 
modifying sits. While in a grove I sat reclined is 
a clause modifier, modifying heard. 

A phrase is a group of related words which 
does not contain a subject and predicate. 

Examples: 

at the door; time and again; somehow or 
other; on the spur of the moment. 

A clause is a group of words containing a sub- 
ject and predicate but making only part of a 
sentence. 

While in a grove I sat reclined is a clause, for it is 
only a part of the foregoing sentence: The sub- 
ject is I; the predicate, sat reclined in a grove. 

Important Note 

It is necessary very often in writing and speaking 
to be able to distinguish principal elements from 
modifiers. 

In the sentence, "Every one of the children is in- 
vited," it is necessary to know that every one, which is 



THE GRAMMAR OF THE SENTENCE 53 

singular, and the base of the subject, determines the 
number of the verb is invited, and not children, which 
is only a part of a modifier of the subject. 

Exercise 9. — Oral or Written 

1. In the following sentences select the base of 
the subject; of the predicate; of the sentence. 

1. By the slow streams the frogs all day and night 
Dream without thought of pain or heed of ill. 

Archibald Lampman 

2. The birds made 
Melody on branch and melody in midair. 

Alfred Tennyson 

3. The winds of heaven mix forever 

With a sweet emotion. 

Percy Bysshe Shelley 

4. The rain came down with a roar like fire. 

Duncan Campbell Scott 

5. The swamp oak, with his royal purple on, 

Glared red. 

James Russell Lowell 

6. With scent of smoke, the pied leaves fall to earth 
In ruddy troops for burial and rebirth. 

Richard Burton 

7. From the hard, unlovely sod 
Springs the glancing goldenrod. 

Margaret E. Sangster 

8. These winter nights against my window pane 
Nature with busy pencil draws designs 

Of ferns and blossoms and fine spray of pines, 
Oak leaf and acorn and fantastic vines. 

Thomas Bailey Aldrich 



54 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

9. Then from a neighboring thicket the mocking bird, 

wildest of singers, 
Swinging aloft on a willow spray that hung o'er the 

water, 
Shook from his little throat such floods of delirious 

music, 

That the whole air and the woods and the waves 

seemed silent to listen. 

Henry W. Longfellow 



2. From the sentences just given: 

1. Select modifiers that express place, means, manner, 
purpose. 

2. Name the other modifiers. Tell what each expresses. 

3. Classify these modifiers as word, phrase, clause. 

4. If a modifier consists of more than one word, see if it 
can be changed to a single word, without changing the 
meaning. 

5. Determine the position of each modifier in relation to 
that which it modifies. 

3. To these sentence bases add specific modifiers. 
Tell what kind of modifier (word, phrase, or clause) 
is used. Place each modifier as close as possible to 
that which it modifies. 

1. Wind blew, (kind, manner) 

2. Lightning struck, (place) 

3. Thunder rolled, (manner) 

4. People were running, (appearance, condition, direction) 

5. Flames burst, (kind and place) 

6. Child stood, (place) 

7. Firemen climbed, (purpose) 

8. Child was rescued, (means) 



THE GRAMMAR OF THE SENTENCE 55 

4. To the following sentence bases add any ap- 
propriate modifiers. Tell whether each addition is 
word, phrase, or clause. State what each addition 
expresses. Be careful to place each modifier where 
the meaning requires it. 

1. a. Coal is used. 

b. It is found. 

c. Miners live. 

d. They work. 

e. They become dissatisfied. 
/. Strikes occur. 

g. Property is destroyed. 
h. Lives are lost. 

2. a. Train came. 

b. Gong sounded. 

c. Horse became terrified. 

d. Driver saw and leaped. 

e. Horse and wagon were destroyed. 
/. Train rushed. 

5. Revise the foregoing compositions by applying 
the facts learned in the study of the placing of the 
subject and predicate. (See pages 46, 47, 48.) For the 
sake of smoothness, clearness, or emphasis, rearrange 
the sentence parts as the thought suggests. 

Re-read Chapter II. Make of 1. and 2., exercise 9, 
section 4, well-constructed, purposeful paragraphs. 

6. The Structure of Sentences. — Sentences, 
in respect to their grammatical structure, are 
classified as simple, complex, and compound. 
These three forms are valuable because they help 
us to convey our thoughts not only with great 
variety but also with precision. 



56 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

I. A simple sentence is one which contains no 
clause modifiers. It is, as a rule, short, pointed, 
direct. It is of much service in expressing a brief, 
terse thought. A series of short, simple sentences 
makes the movement of the writing rapid and force- 
ful. An imperative sentence frequently assumes the 
simple form, as, for example: "Shut the door." "Keep 
off the grass." Note the cumulative effect of the 
sentences in the following extract. 

In two minutes the battle was lost and won. The ranks 
of Balfour's regiment broke. He was cloven down. . . . 
Mackay's own foot were swept away by the furious onset of 
the Camerons. His brother and nephew exerted themselves 
in vain to rally the men. The former was laid dead on the 
ground by a stroke from a claymore. The latter, with eight 
wounds on his body, made his way through the tumult and 
carnage to his uncle's side. Even in that extremity Mackay 
retained all his self-possession. He still had one hope. A 
charge of horse might recover the day. 
Macaulay: The History of England from the Accession of James II. 

Exercise 10. — Written 
1. Write five simple sentences upon: 

1. A relay race (aim at point and action). 

2. Crabbing (aim at directness). 

3. Our tennis match (aim at interest). 

4. How to do or make something (aim at clearness of 
statement). 

2. Write a series of simple sentences upon any of 
the following topics. Through arrangement, occa- 
sional inverted order, etc., aim at making each suc- 
cessive sentence more vivid and effective. 



THE GRAMMAR OF THE SENTENCE 57 

1. A fire breaks out; fire department is notified; horses 
dash out; the scene at the fire. 

2. A boy is canoeing on the river; the canoe gets caught in 
the rapids; boy loses control of it; the terrible predicament. 

3. Clouds begin to gather ; sky grows darker ; distant 
rumble of thunder; swift moving of clouds; thunder grows 
louder; descent of rainstorm. 

4. A little girl gets up to make a recitation in public; 
begins nicely; forgets a line; her further confusion. 

II. A complex sentence contains one or more clause 
modifiers. We speak of the modifying clause or 
clauses as being dependent, that is, "hanging on" 
or depending upon the main or independent clause. 
If the main clause were taken away, the dependent 
clause or clauses would be helpless, because the ex- 
pression would be incomplete. The independent or 
principal clause conveys the main purpose of the com- 
plex sentence. The dependent or subordinate clause 
(or clauses) helps to limit or define the independent 
clause. A wastebasket is under your desk. It is 
a family relic, having belonged to your great-grand- 
parents. If you say to a friend who is visiting you, 
"That wastebasket, which is under my desk, be- 
longed to my great-grandparents," you emphasize 
the age and personal value of the basket. If, how- 
ever, you say, "That wastebasket, which belonged 
to my great-grandparents, is under my desk," you 
emphasize the place of the basket. Your aim or 
purpose determines which idea you will emphasize, 
which you will subordinate. Thus, by means of a 
complex sentence, you can show the relative impor- 
tance of your ideas. 



58 



EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 



Exercise 11. — Oral or Written 

Combine the following sentences, expressing the 
purpose idea in the main clause. What is the func- 
tion of the subordinate clause in effecting the pur- 
pose? For its punctuation, see Chapter V, page 102. 



1. Purpose: to show that 
Washington died two 
years after giving up 
public life. 

2. Purpose: to empha- 
size the date of publi- 
cation. 



3. Purpose: to show 
that Hamilton assisted 
Washington. 



4. Purpose: to empha- 
size the time given to 
the composition. 



5. Purpose: to empha- 
size the fact that the 
copy was prepared by 
Washington. 



Washington died in 1799. 
He had given up ac- 
tive political life in 
1797. 

Washington's Farewell 
Address was published 
in 1796. It came out in 
"The American Daily 
Advertiser." 

Washington consulted 
Alexander Hamilton in 
the preparation of the 
Address. 

Hamilton possessed lit- 
erary ability. 

The "Farewell Address" 
was written with great 
care and deliberation. 

The Address was nearly 
five months in the mak- 
ing. 

The final draft was in 
the handwriting of 
Washington. It shows 
painstaking revision. 



THE GRAMMAR OF THE SENTENCE 59 

Exercise 12. — Written 

1. Write complex sentences in which the dependent 
clauses express 

time cause object (of an action) 

place condition result 

purpose manner means 

In each sentence underline the word or words 
used to relate the subordinate to the principal clause. 

2. Develop the ideas in the following outline (a) 
by means of simple sentences, (b) by means of com- 
plex sentences. 

Compare the sets of sentences. Note the monot- 
ony in each. Develop the ideas in the outline by 
varying the sentence structure; that is, using 
simple and complex sentences. Note how variety 
helps to hold the attention. 

Thanksgiving Day, grand stand gay with color and 
bright voices; the championship football game between 
Harvard and Yale; the positions of the rooters; noise of 
horns and cheers at every telling play; the tense excitement 
because of a tie score ; the great enthusiasm when one team 
makes the winning touchdown. 

III. A compound sentence consists of two or more 
independent clauses, each of which makes a com- 
plete statement. The clauses of a compound sen- 
tence are said to be coordinate, because they sustain 
the same relation in the structure of the sentence. 
They are equal in value. 

Examples: 

The guests are met, the feast is set. 

Samuel Taylor Coleridge 



60 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

The heavens declare the glory of God, and the 
firmament showeth his handiwork. 

The Bible 

Many are the afflictions of the righteous; but 
the Lord delivereth him out of them all. 

The Bible 

Read the clauses in the second sentence. What is 
their relation to each other? (That is, is one de- 
pendent upon the other or are they distinct?) Could 
they be separated and each still make a complete 
sentence? What word relates them? What is the 
meaning and force of the relating word? 

In the third sentence, note how the connective 
but brings the two contrasting clauses together. This 
contrast helps to make the sentence more forceful 
and strengthens the meaning of the whole. 

Exercise 13. — Oral 

In the following sentences read the separate clauses. 
In which sentences are clauses brought together for 
the purpose of contrast? What relation word 
or mark of punctuation is used in connecting the 
contrasting parts? In which sentences are clauses 
brought together with the purpose of weaving har- 
monious parts into a whole? What relation word or 
mark of punctuation is used in connecting these har- 
monious parts? In which sentences are clauses 
brought together for the purpose of showing choice, 
addition, or result? What word or mark of punctua- 
tion is used to show this relation ? 

1. Little deeds of kindness make life pleasant, but great 
deeds of self-sacrifice make life noble. 



THE GRAMMAR OF THE SENTENCE 61 

2. Tell me what you like and I will tell you what you are. 

3. Misfortune could not subdue him and prosperity could 
not spoil him. 

4. The law of the Lord is perfect, converting the soul; 
the testimony of the Lord is sure, making wise the simple. 

5. Hatred stirreth up strifes; but love covereth all sins. 

6. Life is real, life is earnest, and the grave is not its 
goal. 

7. You may talk of the tyranny of Nero and Tiberius; 
but the real tyranny is the tyranny of our next door neighbor. 

8. Be not a witness against thy neighbor without cause; 
and deceive not with thy lips. 

9. The glory of young men is their strength; and the 
beauty of the old men is the gray head. 

10. All his assumptions were false ; therefore, his con- 
clusion was false. 

11. Either you are right or you are wrong. 

12. He may play golf as well as he plays tennis. 

13. If men were consistently selfish, you might analyze 
their motives; if they were consistently noble, they would 
express in their conduct the laws of the highest perfection. 

14. Not only is it well to speak clearly, but it is also 
excellent to speak interestingly. 

15. Some men appear poor, yet they are rich. 

16. The leaves are falling; therefore, winter will soon be 
here. 

17. Either he must do it or I will. 

18. The clouds are gathering rapidly and it may storm. 

19. The great war with France had been carried on by 
British and American troops, and its expense was borne 
partly by Great Britain, partly by the colonies. 

20. He strove long for mastery ; nevertheless, he was 
overcome. 

21. The rain fell in torrents and so the game was deferred. 

22. He would not study; therefore, he failed. 



62 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

23. Cromwell was not only a great general; he was also 
a great statesman. 

24. Discretion shall preserve thee and understanding shall 
keep thee. 

Exercise 14. — Written 

1. Write two or more compound sentences with 
the purpose of showing contrast or opposition. Use 
the word but to relate the clauses of the compound 
sentences. The following are merely suggestions. 

1. Horseback riding; bicycling. 

2. Outdoor skating; rink skating. 

3. Pingpong; tennis. 

4. The seashore; the mountains. 

5. Written manuscript; typewritten manuscript. 

6. Single entry bookkeeping; double entry bookkeeping. 

7. "Monarch" keyboard; "Smith Premier" keyboard. 

8. Pitman system of shorthand ; Gregg system of short- 
hand. 

2. Write two or more compound sentences with 
the purpose of showing addition (use the relation 
word and) ; with the purpose of showing choice (use 
either . . . or; neither . . . nor; nor) ; with the purpose 
of showing cause and effect (use therefore; hence; 
accordingly). 

Exercise 15. — Oral 

In the following compound sentences, supply in 
the blank spaces the proper relation words. 

1. Times change — we change with them. 

2. The prince felt nearly the same emotions, — he thought 
it more manly to conceal them. 



THE GRAMMAR OF THE SENTENCE 63 

3. Herman had risen to greatness in the army, — by his 
valorous exploits he had become a general, — he was much 
endeared to the king. 

4. Goldsmith obtained a medical appointment in the 
service of the East India Company, — the appointment was 
speedily revoked. 

5. The glory of the Lord shall be revealed, and all 
flesh shall see it together : — the mouth of the Lord hath 
spoken it. 

6. The Lord knoweth the days of the upright; — their 
inheritance shall be forever. 

7. When Culloden was fought, Charles Edward Stuart 
was still, in Scottish minds, the gallant young prince, un- 
justly kept from his own, — the clans of Scotland, never 
yet pledged to the Union, were rallied around their rightful 
king. 

8. The newspaper may be entirely proper at breakfast 
time, — assuredly it is not reading for all day. 

9. Commit a crime — the world is made of glass. 

10. He hath showed thee, man, what is good; — what 
doth the Lord require of thee, but to do justly, and to love 
mercy, and to walk humbly with thy God? 

11. The glory of sunrise is revealed only once in a day, — 
even then you will not see it unless you are in the right 
mood. 

12. Thy sun shall no more go down ; neither x shall thy 
moon withdraw itself: — the Lord shall be thine everlast- 
ing light, — the days of thy mourning shall be ended. 

13. The wicked borroweth, and payeth not again; — the 
righteous showeth mercy, and giveth. 

14. Put not your trust in money, — put your money in 
trust. 

15. England has allowed the slum to take care of itself, 
— the slum has turned upon her and eaten out the heart 
of her strength. 



64 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

16. There have been many greater writers than Goldsmith, 
— perhaps no writer was ever more uniformly agreeable. 

17. He did not know what words she said, — the envious 
air would not bear her messages to him. 

18. His politeness attracted many acquaintances, — his 
generosity made him courted by many dependents. 

19. The hope of the righteous shall be gladness : — the 
expectation of the wicked shall perish. 

20. I will try to make the thing intelligible, — I will try 
not to weary you; — I am doubtful of my success either way. 

21. The trumpets sounded, — the army went on its way to 
France. 

22. But now and then she looked up and wailed, and 
called her mother; — she did not see Perseus, — the cap of 
darkness was on his head. 

23. Bruce, seeing the success of the spider, resolved to 
try his own fortune ; — as he had never before gained a victory, 
so he never afterward sustained any decisive defeat. 

24. The purpose inducing their stay is altogether un- 
known; — can I suggest any satisfactory reason for it? 

25. He was not yet wholly recovered of his sickness; — it 
would have passed the wit of man to devise means by which 
he could be kept in his pavilion. 

26. The Life of Savage was anonymous; — it was well 
known in literary circles that Johnson was the writer. 

27. Wtfen a man hears himself somewhat misrepresented, 
it provokes him; — when misrepresentation becomes very 
gross and palpable, it is more apt to amuse him. 

28. The newspaper is almost as necessary as your food 
and clothing ; — it is far more luxurious as a possession than 
anything on the table before you. 

29. When you touch the pocketbook of " Uncle Sam," 
you reach his earthquake center; — for defense, for the pres- 
ervation of the national honor, this people will spend 
untold sums. 



Chapter V 

CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION 

1. Introductory. — If books were printed with- 
out any capitals or signs of punctuation, we should 
find the reading of them an irksome task, if not 
an absolute impossibility. The constant effort 
required to decipher the monotonous text would 
fatigue both our eyes and our minds. The effect 
produced would be similar to that which we re- 
ceive from a speaker who delivers a discourse with- 
out varying the tones of his voice, his a gestures, 
or his facial expression. In writing, we resort to 
the use of capitals and punctuation to make our 
thought so clear that the reader will readily under- 
stand what we wish to express. 

Punctuation is largely a matter of practice and 
common sense. A trained ear, a ready intelli- 
gence, a sense of the different values of ideas, are 
acquirements which come through practice alone. 
Yet certain rules are generally accepted, and it is 
with them that we are concerned. 

2. The Use of Capitals. — Capitals are used for: 

1. The first word of every sentence. 

2. The first word of every fine of poetry. 

93 



94 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

3. The first word of a formal statement or resolu- 
tion. 

Resolved: That all nations should belong to 
the Hague Conference. 

4. The first word of a direct quotation. 

He said, "The day is done." 

Note: Brief phrases directly quoted within the sentence 
are not capitalized. 

In studying ballads, then, we are studying the "poetry 
of the folk," and the "poetry of the folk" is different from 
the ' ' poetry of art. ' ' Kittredge 

5. The first word and every important word in the 
title of a book, play, poem, composition, etc. Unim- 
portant words, as conjunctions, articles, and preposi- 
tions within the title, are not capitalized. 

The Taming of the Shrew. 
Beyond Good and Evil. 
Fragment of an Ode to Maia. 

Note: Some libraries capitalize only the first word of a 
title not containing proper nouns or quotations. This prac- 
tice is not yet generally followed. 

6. The first word of every group of words para- 
graphed separately in an itemized list. 

Money may be remitted by: 

(1) Registered letter. 

(2) Express money order. 

(3) Postal money order. 

(4) Check or draft. 

7. Proper names, proper adjectives, and words 
considered as proper names. 

John, Thomas Jefferson, English, British. 



CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION 95 

(1) Days of the week, months of the year, holidays. 

Sunday, April, Christmas. 
Note: The names of the seasons are not capitalized. 

(2) North, South, East, West, etc., when referring 
to sections of the country. 

The West is not nearly so densely populated as the 
East. 

Note: When indicating mere points of the compass, 
these words are not capitalized. 

He was born in the southeastern part of the state. 

(3) Official titles or titles of honor, used with the 
names of their bearers. 

President McKinley, Captain Jenks, Sir William. 
Note 1: Two capitals are used in double titles. 

Lieutenant Governor Cushing, Vice President Marshall. 

Note 2: The prefix ex before a title is not capitalized. 

After ex-President Roosevelt had completed his ad- 
ministration, he went to Africa. 

(4) Names of political parties, religious sects, etc. 
Democrats, Republicans, Episcopalians. 

(5) Names of important events or documents. 
The Reign of Terror, the Congressional Record. 

(6) Words denoting relationship when used alone 
or when followed by a proper noun, but not when 
used with a possessive pronoun. 

He met Uncle George and Mother at this station. 
He told it to his uncle. 



96 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

8. The pronoun J and the interjection 0. 

"0 world! life! time!" I heard him say. 

9. Abbreviations of titles and degrees, names of 
organizations, names and initials of persons. 

Mr., Dr., Ph.D., I. 0. 0. F. (Independent Order of 
Odd Fellows), Chas. E. Parker. 

10. The words article, paragraph, section, chapter, 
book, when used with a number. 

Book I, Chapter VI, Article 4, Section 7, Paragraph 10. 

11. Bible, Scripture, books of the Bible, names of 
the Deity, and personal pronouns indicating the Deity. 

Genesis, Epistle to the Romans. 

He knows the cause; His ways are wise and just; 
Who serves the King must serve with perfect trust. 

van Dyke 

Exercise 38. — Written 

Supply capitals wherever needed and give your 
reasons. 

1. the poem crossing the bar was written by tennyson, 
shortly before his death. 

2. president lincoln said there should be no north and 
south. 

3. you will find the story of artegall in spenser's faerie 
queene, book V. 

4. whom the lord loveth, he chasteneth. 

5. did you spend your easter vacation east or west of 
pittsburg? 

6. wm. 1. douglas, ex-governor of massachusetts, is a 
shoe manufacturer. 



CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION 97 

7. the renaissance shows its influence in england during 
the sixteenth century. 

8. the third book of the bible is leviticus. 

3. The Use of the Period. — The period is used: ; 

1. At the end of a declarative or an imperative 
sentence. 

The author of A Tale of Two Cities died a wealthy 

man. 
Never leave that till to-morrow which you can do 

to-day. 

2. To indicate an abbreviation. 

John G. .Hibben, Ph.D., is president of Princeton 
University, Princeton, N. J. 

Note 1: Do not use a period after Miss, as this, unlike 
Mr. and Mrs., is not an abbreviation. 

Note 2: Expressions like 1st, 3d, 16mo, 4to, 8vo, etc., 
are not abbreviations and hence do not require a period. 

3. After figures used to number paragraphs. 

Note : For illustrations, see various paragraphs in this 
book. When such figures are inclosed in marks of paren- 
thesis, no period is placed after them. For illustrations, 
see pages 111-112 of this book. 

4. After letters of the alphabet used in topical 
outlines. 

For illustrations, see outline, Appendix B. 

Note: When such letters are inclosed in marks of paren- 
thesis, no period is used. 



98 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

5. After the name of a speaker in the report of a 
debate, of proceedings in Congress, and of other 
formal discussions. 

Mr. Foster. When was that bill introduced? 
Mr. Cummings. On February 14, 1912. 

6. After the name of a speaker in a dramatic com- 
position. 

Miss Stuart. No, no, no! I'm all right. 
Johnson. Sure? 

7. Several periods are often used instead of stars 
to denote the omission of parts of a text. 

The tablet ... is to be mounted on a slab of slate 
stone, etc. 

4. The Use of the Comma. — No other punc- 
tuation mark needs such detailed explanation as 
the comma. So various and so numerous are its 
services that its importance cannot easily be over- 
estimated. The following rules should serve as 
general guides, although, in many particular in- 
stances, their application must be determined 
largely by the context. Very often the writer 
must decide whether the meaning is clear enough 
to warrant the omission of a comma. Good judg- 
ment and discretion are the all-important referees. 

The comma is used: 

1. To set off an introductory word or phrase not 
closely related to the words which immediately 
follow. 



CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION 99 

Without, the structure is strictly Indian. 

On the outbreak of the second war with France, 
Thomas Cromwell was a busy and influential mem- 
ber of the Commons in Parliament. 

Note: If the introductory word or phrase seems closely 
related to the words which immediately follow, or if the 
introductory phrase is very short, the comma is usually 
omitted. 

Of his honesty there can be no question. 
From that moment he would scarcely spare me from 
his sight. 

2. To separate an introductory dependent clause 
from an independent clause. 

When an individual succeeds in tapping his reserve 
energies, others marvel at the tremendous tasks he 
accomplishes. 

Exercise 39. — Written 
Insert commas where needed. 

1. Indeed the whole country about Stratford-on-Avon 
is poetic ground. 

2. In short every one of the savages decked himself 
with paint. 

3. Below the river broke into rapids. 

4. With a heavy heart he returned to his work. 

5. Whenever possible an advertisement should have a 
news interest. 

6. As the telephone was out of order I was obliged to 
deliver the message in person. 

7. If the hive be disturbed by rash and stupid hands it 
will yield bees instead of honey. 

8. Since the invention of printing books have multi- 
plied without number. 



100 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

3. To separate parenthetical words, phrases, or 
clauses (that is, words, phrases, or clauses which 
might be omitted without destroying the main sense 
of the sentence) from the rest of the sentence. 

I am, nevertheless, not convinced. 

Commerce, for instance, develops according to certain 

principles. 
He had decided, he said, to refuse the offer. 

Exercise 40. — Written 
Insert commas where needed. 

1. Business after all is nothing less than a science. 

2. New York as we all know has developed eminently 
rich men. 

3. Inimitable indeed is Dickens's description of the 
death of little Paul. 

4. The judge too was much impressed. 

5. There is I must confess little good to be derived from 
that solution of the problem. 

6. An exacting employer therefore may develop unsus- 
pected ability in his employees. 

7. Once in a while though only once in a while a series 
of advertisements can be planned which will have a serial 
interest. 

4. To separate the terms of a series which have the 
same construction and are not connected by conjunc- 
tions. Should a conjunction occur between the last 
two terms, it does not displace the comma but follows 
it. Take the sentence: He toiled day after day, week 
after week, month after month. In this sentence we have 
several phrases similar in construction. We call them 
terms. Because they follow one another, we designate 



CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION 101 

them as terms in a series, and separate them by commas. 
The terms of a series may consist of words, phrases, 
or clauses. 

Note : If two terms in the series are considered as a unit, 
no comma should be used within the unit. 

He studied the dramas of Shakespeare, Marlowe, 

Webster, and Massinger and Ford. (Massinger and 

Ford collaborated in the writing of dramas; hence 

no comma is used before the and.) 
He served coffee, fruit, cold meat, and bread and 

butter. (Here bread and butter are considered as a 

unit.) 
She ordered from the store meat, potatoes, rice, cheese, 

bread, and butter. (Here bread and butter are not 

considered as a unit.) 

Exception: The comma is omitted before the and in a 
firm name composed of three or more parts. Meekins, 
Packard & Wheat; Browning, King & Company. 

Exercise 41. — Written 

Insert commas where needed in the following 
sentences. 

1. Find out how one gets saves spends gives lends bor- 
rows and bequeaths money and you have the character of 
the man in full outline. 

2. He was a gentleman a strong man and a patriot. 

3. He has no shirt to his back no shoes to his feet and 
no roof over his head; he is like the flies in the air who 
have none of these things. 

4. The crabbed boy the conservative boy the boy who 
is not popular with his fellows is not likely to make a good 
salesman. 



102 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

5. The average girl's horizon is bounded on the north 
by her clothes on the south by her social relations on the 
east by her private hopes and on the west by her in- 
come; four solid walls that shut out very thoroughly 
the world's light and movement. 

6. Mr. Gray had been known to all Boston as having 
grown up among them from humility from obscurity from 
poverty to wealth and consideration. 

7. It is Clive returned from Malta from Gibraltar from 
Seville from Cadiz and with him our dear old friend the 
Colonel. 

8. He (Napoleon) knew the path to it lay over 
wounded and slaughtered millions over putrefying heaps 
of his fellow creatures over ravaged fields smoking ruins 
pillaged cities. 

9. What we need is an education that teaches men to 
look in various directions qualifying them for different 
pursuits enabling them to do what they desire and choose 
and fitting them to do something else if that which they 
select shall not continue to be profitable or desirable. 

10. The exhilaration of the rapid flight the crack of 
the whip the mad rhythm of the hoofs the witchery of 
the night hour the risks of the situation the very mad- 
ness of the whole enterprise all combined to set the widow's 
gay blood delightfully astir mounting to her light brain like 
sparkling wine. 

5. To set off non-restrictive phrases or clauses. 

A restrictive phrase or clause is one that limits that 
which it modifies. To remove a restrictive phrase 
or clause would alter the meaning; therefore, no 
comma separates it from the word it modifies. 

A non-restrictive phrase or clause is one inserted 
for the purpose of additional statement, often of an 



CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION 103 

explanatory nature. It might be removed from the 
sentence without changing the main idea. Therefore, 
commas separate it from the rest of the sentence. A 
restrictive element is absolutely necessary to the sense 
of the sentence; a non-restrictive element is included 
merely for the purpose of greater clearness. 

Cyclones, which are so common in the West, rarely 
visit the New England states. (Non-restrictive; 
hence, commas) 

Cyclones which sweep over Kansas often cause con- 
siderable damage. (Restrictive; hence, no commas) 

The adding machine, which has been on the market 
several years, is widely used throughout the country. 
( Non-restrictive) 

The adding machine which the First National Bank 
installed is a great time-saver. (Restrictive) 

Exercise 42. — Written 
Insert commas where necessary. 

1. Wall Street which is one of the smallest streets in 
New York is one of the great centers of finance. 

2. Peary who is a Bowdoin graduate discovered the 
North Pole. 

3. The man who strives advances. 

4. People who seek trouble find it. 

5. Conditions of life which existed in the days of early 
Rome are now being investigated by archaeologists. 

6. Jones who had toiled incessantly was awarded the 
scholarship. 

7. He substituted for Williams who was the regular 
quarter-back. 

8. The wisest man is he who profits by the experience 
of others. 



104 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

9. Tramps like bad pennies are always turning up. 
10. Profane words like rank weeds choke the finest 
thought. 

6. To separate words or phrases in apposition. 

The late Justice Lurton, a Democrat, was appointed 
a member of the Supreme Court by ex-President 
Taft, a Republican. 

Exercise 43. — Written 
Insert commas where necessary. 

1. Pope the man is a far different creature from Pope 
the poet. 

2. The green carnation is an actuality the outcome of 
experiments by Luther Burbank. 

3. Poetry one of the earliest of the arts survives as one 
of the loftiest. 

4. The Canadian Pacific one of the great railroads of 
Canada runs through trains daily from Seattle to Minne- 
apolis. 

5. New York the largest city in the United States has 
a population of more than four million. 

7. To separate words in direct address from the 
rest of the sentence. 

Lord, I have loved the habitation of thy house. 

Psalm xxvi 

Lord God of Hosts, be with us yet, 

Lest we forget, lest we forget! 

Rudyard Kipling 

Exercise 44. — Written 

Insert commas where necessary. 

1. Come into the garden Maud. 

2. Well my dear fellow what excuse have you to offer? 



CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION 105 

3. Britons you stay too long. 

4. Queen of fragrance lovely Rose 

The beauties of thy leaves disclose! 

Broome 

8. To indicate the omission of words easily 
understood. 

His home was in Cleveland, Ohio. 
During the first year he saved $50 ; during the second, 
$75; and during the third, $100. 

Exercise 45. — Written 
Insert commas where necessary. 

1. Send this package to Kalamazoo Mich. 

2. London in 1910 had a population of 7,253,000; Paris 
of 2,888,000; Vienna of 2,031,000; they are the three largest 
European capitals. 

3. The Republican candidate for President in 1912 was 
Taft; the Progressive candidate Roosevelt; the Democratic 
candidate Wilson. 

9. To separate a short quotation in declarative 
or imperative form from the words of explanation 
which follow in the sentence; to separate the words 
of explanation in a sentence from a short quotation 
which follows. 

"That was a mistake," was his response. 
She inquired, "What did you say?" 

10. To separate the words of explanation inserted 
between parts of a quotation, or to separate a quota- 
tion inserted between words of explanation. 

"That was," he repeated, "a mistake." 

He said, "It is snowing," and ran for his sled. 



106 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

Exercise 46. — Written 
Insert necessary commas (See Rules 9 and 10). 

1. "Do the square thing" he advised. 

2. With an air of amazement she inquired "But how 
did he happen to know the treasure was there?" 

3. "My advice is" continued the captain "that we dis- 
continue the search." 

4. "Beauty is truth" writes Keats "truth beauty." 

5. "If you had been a day earlier" was the greeting of 
the hotel clerk "you would have seen the carnival." 

11. To separate a long clause from the rest of a 
compound sentence. The comma precedes the main 
conjunction. Short, closely related clauses of a 
compound sentence are separated from one another 
by a comma when the conjunction is omitted. 

She found him waiting for her at her journey's end, 
and they walked away together through the streets. 

Thrones tottered, Europe trembled. 

Exercise 47. — Written 
Insert necessary commas. 

1. Men may come and men may go but I go on forever. 

2. The uses of occasional adversity are sweet and neces- 
sary for they remind us of our advantages. 

3. Faraday produced the theory of lines of force but the 
mathematicians immediately attacked it. 

4. I came I saw I conquered. 

5. The Bulgarians are a people with many fine quali- 
ties and they have been a valuable stabilizing force in 
the Balkans. 



CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION 107 

12. To separate adjective or adverbial phrases out 
of their normal order. 

Despite his handicaps, he was a great orator. 

Frail as thy love, the flowers were dead 
Ere yet the evening sun was set. 

For the ordinary mechanic, this process has little or 
no value. 

Exercise 48. — Written 
Insert necessary commas. 

1. With voices fierce they demanded recognition. 

2. Great masses of cloud heavy and dark were piled in 
the western sky. 

3. Despite a running fire of shots they rode forth bravely 
and boldly. 

4. Just for a handful of silver he left us. 

5. The sailor swart and tar-stained looked like an old sea 
god. 

Exercise 49. — Written 

Miscellaneous uses of the comma. 
Insert necessary commas. State your reason for 
every comma inserted. 

1. Rip Van Winkle inherited however but little of the 
martial character of his ancestors. 

2. Whenever he went dodging about the village he was 
surrounded by a troop of children hanging on his skirts 
clambering on his back and playing a thousand tricks on 
him with impunity. 

3. His son Rip an urchin begotten in his own likeness 
promised to inherit the habits with the old clothes of his 
father. 



108 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

4. Rip Van Winkle however was one of those happy 
mortals of foolish well-oiled dispositions who take the world 
easy eat white bread or brown whichever can be got with 
the least thought or trouble and would rather starve on a 
penny than work for a pound. 

5. Rip's sole domestic adherent was his dog Wolf who 
was as much henpecked as his master. 

6. Nicholas Vedder landlord of the inn was rarely heard 
to speak but smoked his pipe incessantly. 

7. In a long ramble on a fine autumnal day Rip had 
unconsciously scrambled to one of the highest parts of the 
Kaatskill mountains. 

8. He reiterated his visits to the flagon so often that at 
length his senses were overpowered his eyes swam in his 
head his head gradually declined and he fell into a deep 
sleep. 

9. The appearance of Rip with his long grizzled beard 
his rusty fowling piece his uncouth dress and an army of 
women and children at his heels soon attracted the atten- 
tion of the tavern politicians. 

10. "What is your name my good woman?" asked he. 

11. Rip's story was soon told for the whole twenty years 
had been to him but as one night. 

12. It is a common wish of all henpecked husbands in 
the neighborhood when life hangs heavy on their hands that 
they might have a quiet draught out of Rip Van Winkle's 
flagon. 

13. One September night a family had gathered round 
their hearth and piled it high with the driftwood of mountain 
streams the dry cones of the pine and the splintered ruins of 
great trees that had come crashing down the precipice. 

14. "Ah! this fire is the right thing" cried he "especially 
when there is such a pleasant circle round it." 

15. To chase away the gloom the family threw pine 
branches on the fire till the dry leaves crackled and the 



CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION 109 

flame arose discovering once again a scene of peace and 
humble happiness. 

16. Within the fire was yet smouldering on the hearth 
and the chairs in a circle round it as if the inhabitants had 
but gone forth to view the devastation of the slide and 
would shortly return to thank Heaven for their miraculous 
escape. 

17. The story has been told far and wide and will forever 
be a legend of these mountains. 

18. His name and person utterly unknown his history 
his way of life his plans a mystery never to be solved his 
death and his existence equally a doubt — whose was the 
agony of that death moment? 

5. The Use of the Semicolon. — The semi- 
colon is used: 

1. To separate the clauses of a compound sentence 
which are long or which are not closely connected. 

Cowards die many times before their death; 
The valiant never taste of death but once. 

Shakespeare 

Exercise 50. — Written 
Insert necessary semicolons. 

1. The vigor of Omar began to fail the curls of beauty 
fell from his head strength departed from his hands, and 
agility from his feet. 

2. Success largely depends on your attitude toward your 
work and results are the indications of application in your 
work. 

3. The careless man is satisfied with whatever he does 
offhand the careful man is never satisfied until he has made 
revision after revision. 



110 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

2. To precede such words and phrases as: namely, 
therefore, then, consequently, moreover, as, so, other- 
wise, however, still, hence, besides, accordingly, also, 
that is, for example, when they introduce explanatory 
material or join principal clauses. Commas usually 
follow these expressions. 

The poems of Keats are mainly lyrical; that is, they 
express the emotions of the writer in a series of 
cadent phrases. 

Exercise 51. — Written 
Insert necessary semicolons and commas. 

1. He was unfaithful in his former position therefore do 
not employ him. 

2. The plural sign of a compound word is usually added 
to the main part of the compound as sisters-in-law. 

3. There is one great safeguard against European intrusion 
namely the Monroe doctrine. 

4. We must stick by what we believe otherwise no one 
can have confidence in our opinions. 

3. To separate members of a compound sentence 
which contain commas within themselves. 

On the sward at the cliff-top, 

Lie strewn the white flocks; 

On the cliff-side, the pigeons 

Roost deep in the rocks. 

Matthew Arnold 

As Caesar loved me, I weep for him; as he was fortu- 
nate, I rejoice at it; as he was valiant, I honor 
him; but as he was ambitious, I slew him. 

Shakespeare 



CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION 111 

Exercise 52. — Written 
Supply the necessary punctuation. 

1. Because you were faithful you deserve praise because 
you were the most scholarly you deserve the prize. 

2. To think is good to think and reflect is better to 
think reflect and then act is best. 

3. He was courteous not cringing to superiors affable not 
familiar to equals and kind but not condescending to inferiors. 

4. To set off a series of separate statements which 
are dependent on what precedes or follows them. 

He was a genuine fool: he spent his money uselessly; 
he treated whomever he met, indiscriminately; and 
he expected to be judged a good fellow in return. 

Exercise 53. — Written 
Punctuate the following: 

1. She" told how the outing had been planned where the 
crowd had spent the day and why the day had been so 
pleasant. 

2. Although he had fought all his life to subdue this 
weakness although he had enlisted all the resources of his 
mind and will in the conflict against his fiery thirst although 
he hated himself because of his slavery to alcohol he finally 
died a drunkard. 

6. The Use of the Colon. — The colon is used: 

1. To indicate that something of importance fol- 
lows; as, 

(1) An enumeration, or list, or an explanatory or 
illustrative clause. 

The following members are on the reception com- 
mittee: Dr. Jones, Judge Barnes, ex-Senator Barry. 



112 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

(2) A long or formal quotation. 

Coleridge points out the moral of The Ancient Mariner 
in this stanza: 

"He prayeth best, who loveth best 
All things both great and small; 
For the dear God who loveth us, 
He made and loveth all." 

Exercise 54. — Written 
Punctuate the following sentences. 

1. There are three cardinal virtues faith hope and charity. 

2. Relative clauses are of two kinds restrictive and non- 
restrictive. 

3. It was George Washington who said "To persevere in 
one's duty and be silent is the best answer to calumny." 

4. Hazlitt makes the acute observation "No really great 
man ever thought himself so." 

2. To separate the different members of a com- 
pound sentence which contain semicolons within 
themselves. 

It is too far; the journey is too hazardous: only the 
foolhardy attempt such feats. 

3. To follow the salutation in a formal letter. 

My dear Sir: 
Gentlemen: 

4. To follow such expressions as: as follows, thus, 
in the following manner, etc. 

The old proverb goes as follows: One good turn 
deserves another. 



CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION 113 

Exercise 55. — Written 
Punctuate the following sentences. 

1. He came from the North she came from the South 
he was interested in science she was interested in litera- 
ture he was somewhat of a recluse she was fond of society 
and yet they seemed an ideally matched couple. 

2. Emerson sums up his ideas on government thus 
"Government has been a fossil it should be a plant." 

3. In 1809 five noted men were born Gladstone the states- 
man Darwin the scientist Tennyson the poet Chopin the 
musician Abraham Lincoln the man of the people. 

7. The Use of the Dash. — The dash is used: 

1. To denote a sudden change in thought. 
Go into the library — I mean, go into the parlor. 

2. To set off explanatory expressions. Parenthesis 
marks ( ) may be used in this connection. 

Some — only a small number — withdrew from the 

contest. 
Lincoln — if it be fair to make a comparison — was, 

it seems to me, greater than Washington. 

3. To denote a sudden pause or break in thought, 
or the broken speech of uncontrolled emotion. 

I should have realized my danger, but, — 
She sobbed, " I have — I have — missed the — the — 
last train." 

4. With the colon often before quotations, formal 
statements, and, in the report of a speech, after the 
salutation. 



114 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

We looked in his Bible, and there was a slip of paper 

at the place where he had marked the text: — 
"They desire a country, even a heavenly ..." 

Edward Everett Hale 

Failing the constitution of the Tribunal by direct 
agreement between the parties, it shall be formed in 
the following manner: — 

Each party shall appoint two arbiters and these shall 
together choose an umpire. . . . 

From Art. XXXII, Hague Arbitration Convention 

Mr. President and Fellow-Citizens of New York: — 
The facts with which I shall deal this evening, etc. . . 

Arraham Lincoln 

5. To sum up the thought of a sentence. 

Patience, skill, perseverance — all were secrets of his 
power. 

6. To follow a capital letter, indicating the name 
of a person or place. 

The book was by G K C . 

8. The Use of the Apostrophe. — The apostro- 
phe is used as a superior character; that is, one 
inserted above the letters of the word. 

1. To denote the possessive case of nouns and 
indefinite pronouns. 

It was John's book. 

It was no one's affair. 

The lawyers' clerks. 

Ellis and Blackwell's Geometry. (One book). 

Field's and Arden's Spellers. (Two books.) 



CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION 115 

2. To indicate the omission of letters. 

It's a matter of taste. 

He can't work accurately. 

3. To form the plural of signs, figures, and letters. 

Mind your p's and q's. 

The sizes range from l's to 8's. 

— 's,+'s. 

Exercise 56. — Written 
Supply the necessary punctuation. 

1. None of the other refreshment stands there were a few 
seemed so pleasing as Joes. 

2. There arose a shout a shout in which the miners 
children did not join. 

3. Capt K cant shoot accurately. 

4. "I should sh should have sh should have been pre 
present" was his stuttering excuse. 

5. The learning of the a b c s may seem old-fashioned but 
and this we'll all concede many old-fashioned methods can 
still be advantageously retained. 

Exercise 57. — Written 

Punctuate the following sentences. 

Determine (a) the number of the noun, (6) its ending, 
(c) the rule that covers (a) and (6). See Appendix A, 
1,8.) 

1. The boys hat was blown off by the wind. 

2. The ladies department of the bank is now furnished. 

3. Above the door are the words, Boys Side. 

4. The sign read, Childrens Shoes of All Sizes for One 
Dollar. 

5. Mens hats are made at that mill. 



116 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

6. Mansfield and Johnsons speller is just out. 

7. He used both Lucas and Harts spellers in his classes. 

8. Burns poetry is read by the seniors. 

9. Dickens A Tale of Two Cities was produced at one 
time by Henry Miller, 

10. He made that donation for his conscience sake. 

9. The Quotation and the Use of Quotation 
Marks. — The direct words of another are in- 
closed by quotation marks (" "). A quotation, 
as a rule, begins with a capital letter. If, however, 
it is only a word, a phrase, or a clause quoted as a 
part of the writer's own sentence, it begins with a 
small letter. 

The speaker was "a fellow of infinite jest" and infantine 
gestures. 

1. A quotation is separated from explanatory 
material by some mark or marks of punctuation. 

"You will observe," began the colonel, "that such occur- 
rences are rare." 

2. A quotation is punctuated according to its 
use in the sentence. 

Exercise 58. — Oral 

Examine the following sentences. Account for 
capitalization and punctuation. Note the position of 
quotation marks in their relation to the other marks 
of punctuation. Note also that explanatory material 
may divide a quotation. Discuss how this affects the 
capitalization of the divided parts. Analyze sentences 
3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and formulate rules to cover these 
examples. 



CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION 117 

1. "Where will he get the money?" Frank inquired. 

2. Frank said, "It is all over." 

3. "He will help you," said Mary, "if you can go now." 

4. "I am hurt," moaned the child. " I can go no farther." 

5. Margaret cried to me, "Can't you help him!" 

6. "I didn't do it!" he gasped. 

7. "Mary," said John, "Frances is going." 

8. "I shall come," said Frank, "when Father returns." 

9. " I am all right," whispered John. "Tell Mother now." 

10. "Oh!" said Tom, "that would about kill him!" 

11. "Hurrah!" yelled the boy. "To-morrow we have no 
school!" 

12. "Ah, there you're mistaken!" laughed the amused boy. 

Note: A formal quotation is usually separated from the 
explanatory material by a colon; as, Kossuth said: "Liberty 
should not be either American or European, — it should be 
just liberty." 

Exercise 59. — Written 

Punctuate the following sentences. 

1. When shall I come I asked 

2. He shouted to me through his hands grab the rope 

3. Beware of the trains he cried 

4. She said in a preoccupied way I don't care 

5. I'll do that she said but not now 

6. He will be killed thought he But there are three 
stories and so possibly I have time 

7. Leave me alone with her she entreated 

8. Enough of this he whispered in a low voice I will not 
be responsible for the outcome 

9. You were very good to me once before she replied 

10. Come I said with emphasis we will go on 

11. Where he asked do you think I am going 

12. Mother said the child they are calling you now 



118 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

13. And what my boy may be the meaning of all this was 
her question 

14. You seem to think replied Robert that I am afraid 

15. I am afraid returned Howard that you dont know all 

16. No he answered it is not there 

3. In conversation, the words of a speaker, together 
with the explanatory material, form one paragraph. 
A new paragraph is made to indicate the speech of 
another. In this way, the reader can follow the 
dialogue with ease. 

In my turn, I stepped back. But, in making the action, I 
detected in his eyes some latent fear of me. 

"You look at me," I said, forcing a smile, "as if you 
had a dread of me." 

"I was doubtful," he returned, "whether I had seen 
you before." 

"Where?" 

He pointed to the red light he had looked at. 

"There?" I said. 

"Yes." 

"My good fellow, what should I do there? However, be 

that as it may, I never was there, you may swear." 

Dickens: The Signal Man. 
(Adapted) 

Exercise 60. — Oral 

Account for the paragraphing in the foregoing 
extract. State reasons for all marks of punctuation. 

Exercise 61. — Oral 

Bring to class short conversations. Analyze for 
paragraphing and punctuation. 



CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION 119 

Exercise 62. — Written 

Write a conversation upon any one of the following 
subjects. 

1. A broken dish. 

2. A mishap to a friend's bicycle. 

3. An interview to secure a position. 

4. The merits of a new commodity. 

5. An account of a play in a game. 

6. Two women at a bargain counter. 

7. Two old soldiers recalling past days. 

8. A barber and a customer. 

9. A salesman and a grocer. 

10. A sailor and a longshoreman. 

11. An army officer and a captured spy. 

12. Three boys on a mountain climb. 

4. When a quotation consists of more than one 
paragraph, quotation marks are placed at the begin- 
ning of the quotation in the first paragraph, at the 
beginning of each succeeding paragraph, and at the 
end of the last one. 

President Lincoln said: "Fourscore and seven years 

ago 

all men are created equal. 

"Now we are engaged , . 



that we should do this. 

But in a larger sense 



for the people shall not perish from the earth." 



120 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

Exercise 63.— Written 

Copy a quotation of two or three connected para- 
graphs to illustrate the foregoing rule. 

5. A quotation within a quotation is usually inclosed 
hy single quotation marks (' '). 

"On what shelf is Hope's 'Prisoner of Zenda'?" asked 

the child. 
The child called to her sister, "I can't find 'Who is 

Sylvia?'" 
Query: What is the reason for the position of the 
question marks in the two foregoing illustrations? 

Exercise 64. — Written 

Punctuate the following according to the foregoing 
rules. 

1. He who wants to read a good story said Mr. White 
should read Wilkie Collins' Moonstone 

2. John replied quoting the immortal Shakespeare I should 
say neither a borrower nor a lender be 

3. As he was trying to extricate his machine from the 
mud Frank quoted laughingly my kingdom for a horse 

4. Mr. Willis forgot whispered the child and said aint 

5. The word skiddoo is slang said the teacher 

6. Indirect quotations are not inclosed in quotation 
marks. 

"1 am going," says Tom. (Direct) 
Tom says that he is going. (Indirect) 
"I am going," said Tom. (Direct) 
Tom said that he was going. (Indirect) 



CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION 121 

Exercise 65. — Written 

Change the quotations in previous exercises to the 
indirect form, and punctuate correctly. 

Exercise 66. — Written and Oral 

Insert commas, semicolons, colons, wherever nec- 
essary. State your reason for every punctuation 
mark used. 

1. It was September 1429 the weather had fallen sharp a 

flighty piping wind laden with showers beat about the 

township and the dead leaves ran riot along the street. 

Here and there a window was already lighted up and the 

noise of men-at-arms making merry over supper within 

came forth in fits and was swallowed up and carried away 

by the wind. The night fell swiftly the flag of England 

fluttering on the spire top grew ever fainter and fainter 

against the flying clouds — a black speck like a swallow in 

the tumultuous leaden chaos of the sky. As the night fell 

the wind rose and began to hoot under archways and roar 

amid the tree-tops in the valley below the town. 

Stevenson 

2. All the coin was gold of antique date and of great 
variety French Spanish and German money with a few 
English guineas and some counters of which we had never 
seen specimens before. There were diamonds — some of 
them exceedingly large and fine — a hundred and ten in 
all and not one of them small eighteen rubies of remarkable 
brilliancy three hundred and ten emeralds all very beautiful 
and twenty-one sapphires with an opal. Besides all this 
there was a vast quantity of solid gold ornaments nearly 
two hundred massive finger rings and earrings rich chains — 
thirty of these if I remember eighty-three very large and 



122 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

heavy crucifixes five censers of great value a prodigious 
golden punch-bowl ornamented with richly chased vine 
leaves and Bacchanalian figures with two sword handles 
exquisitely embossed and many other smaller articles which 
I cannot recollect. Poe 

3. It carried him back upon the instant to a certain fair 
day in a fisher's village a gray day a piping wind a crowd upon 
the street the blare of brasses the booming of drums the nasal 
voice of a ballad singer and a boy going to and fro buried 
over head in the crowd and divided between interest and 
fear until coming out upon the chief place of concourse he 
beheld a booth and a great screen with pictures dismally 
designed garishly colored Brownrigg with her apprentice the 
Mannings with their murdered guest Weare in the death- 
grip of Thurtell and a score besides of famous crimes. The 
thing was as clear as an illusion he was once again that little 
boy he was looking once again and with the same sense of 
physical revolt at these vile pictures he was still stunned by 
the thumping of the drums. Stevenson 

4. Death be not proud though some have called thee 
Mighty and dreadful for thou art not so 

For those whom thou think'st thou dost overthrow 

Die not poor Death nor yet canst thou kill me. 

Donne 

5. Music when soft voices die 
Vibrates in the memory 
Odours when sweet violets sicken 
Live within the sense they quicken. 
Rose leaves when the rose is dead 
Are heap'd for the beloved's bed 

And so thy thoughts when thou art gone 

Love itself shall slumber on. Shelley 



Chapter VI 

WORD STUDY 

1. The Importance of Words. — Suppose the 
world should be deprived of the use of words. Busi- 
ness could then be carried on only through signs; 
telegraphs would cease to click; telephones would 
prove useless mockeries; transportation would 
be swamped in muddled confusion; industries 
would fall a prey to their own intricacies. The 
world, indeed, would be handicapped at every 
turn. 

Words, then, it is clear, are a part of the stock 
in trade of the business world and he who would 
command should be the master of and not the 
slave to his vocabulary. He should be able to 
speak concisely and pointedly, and, moreover, if 
need arise, he should have at his service such a 
variety and range of words as to enable him to 
express himself not only with precision and accu- 
racy, but with that fullness of language which 
suggests flexibility, ease, and vigor. 

2. How to Broaden the Vocabulary. — Practice 
is the first aid. Actually get hold of new words 
and then use them. You will perceive that you 
will not startle others so much as yourself. Grad- 
ually, the words will begin to assume a standing 

123 



124 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

in your vocabulary and, before long, they will 
seem like old friends, 

To obtain these words, various practical methods 
are possible. Here are a few : 

1. Find synonyms for words which you have a 
tendency to overuse. 

2. Record words with which you are familiar but 
which you never use, — and then "work" them. 

3. Make a list of important, unfamiliar words 
which you hear, or discover in your reading. 

4. Listen carefully to the conversations or ad- 
dresses of educated people. 

5. If possible, try to translate from a foreign lan- 
guage. In this way a fine perception of shades of 
meaning, almost unattainable by any other method, 
is acquired. 

6. Get interested in the dictionary, where you 
can trace the life history of words. 

3. The Origin, Growth, and Decay of Words. — 
Words, like bushes, have roots. And as a bush, 
springing from one set of roots, may have many 
branches, so there are many words which branch 
off from the same root. The roots of English 
words are most frequently found in the Anglo- 
Saxon, Latin, and French languages; although 
nearly every language has helped to enrich Eng- 
lish. On that account a potential wealth of words 
lies at our disposal, to convey almost every shade 
of meaning. Take the root fac — it is found in 
the Latin verb facere, "to do or make." A large 



WORD STUDY 125 

number of English words have grown out of it, 
among them being: fact, factor, facile, factory, 
faction. If we learn the meanings of a few roots, 
they may assist us to glean, in part, the meaning 
of unfamiliar words containing familiar roots. 
The knowledge of prefixes and suffixes is of similar 
value. 

Words, like human beings, have histories. Some 
words have persisted for a long time, undergoing 
little or no change of meaning. Such words are 
few. Others have shifted their signification from 
time to time and, through new associations, have 
gathered new meanings. With an unabridged 
dictionary we can trace this gradual development. 
That is one reason why we have to study the dic- 
tion of Shakespeare. To his audiences, many 
words with which we are familiar had meanings far 
different from what we should expect. Thus they 
would interpret fond as foolish, fancy as love, 
admire as wonder, clerk as scholar, and so on. 

It is sad but, nevertheless, true that words in 
the course of time often degenerate. Silly once 
meant innocent; villain once meant serf; wanton, 
playful. When Gertrude called her son, Hamlet, 
a wretch, she used the word as a term of endear- 
ment. Idiot is derived from a Greek word which 
originally meant a private person. The Romans, 
borrowing the word, added the idea of one set 
apart because of some peculiarity. And later, it 
has come to acquire the still further meaning of one 



126 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

whose peculiarity is a weak mind, a total lack of 
will power. 

Dr. Richard Chenevix Trench has compared 
words, embracing poetry, history, biography, to 
fossils, because they help us to understand the 
total experience of the human race from its earliest 
times to its living present. 

4. The Power of Words. — Dr. Trench, in speak- 
ing of the power of words, says: 

It is the first characteristic of a well-dressed man that 
his clothes fit him: they are not too small and shrunken 
here, too large and loose there. Now it is precisely such a 
prime characteristic of a good style, that the words fit close 
to the thoughts. They will not be too big here, hanging 
like a giant's robe on the limbs of a dwarf ; nor too small 
there, as a boy's garments into which the man has pain- 
fully and ridiculously thrust himself. You do not, as you 
read, feel in one place that the writer means more than he 
has succeeded in saying; in another that he has said more 
than he means ; in a third something beside what his precise 
intention was; in a fourth that he has failed to convey any 
meaning at all; and all this from a lack of skill in employ- 
ing the instrument of language, of precision in knowing 
what words would be the exactest correspondents and 
aptest exponents of his thoughts. 

Exercise 67. — Oral and Written 
Consult an unabridged dictionary for the meaning 
of each word in the following groups. Master a 
group daily, by using each word in oral and written 
discourse. The words marked with the asterisk are 
commonly used in business; they should receive 
special attention. 





WORD STUDY 


127 


1 


2 


3 


4 


*part 


aggravate 


manly 


conjure 


^portion 


annoy 


mannish 


conjure' 


relation 


provoke 


woman 


♦expect 


relative 


vex 


lady 


♦suspect 


*most 


exasperate 


^farther 


recollect 


*almost 


contemptibly 


^further 


remember 


*house 


contemptuously 


continual 


teach 


*home 


*abbreviate 


continuous 


learn 


avocation 


^contract 


*stay 


♦likely 


vocation 


*abridge 


*stop 


*liable 


5 


6 


7 


8 


^balance 


eminent 


decimate 


♦locate 


Remainder 


prominent 


destroy 


♦settle 


*remnant 


*fix 


argue 


hanged 


beautiful 


*repair 


augur 


hung 


pretty 


*loan 


confute 


healthy 


handsome 


*lend 


refute 


healthful 


deadly 


*party 


*bring 


♦affect 


deathly 


*person 


*fetch 


*effect 


*settle 


*ample 


egoism 


♦climax 


*pay 


*spacious 


egotism 


♦acme 




9 


10 






adduce 


clumsy 






deduce 


awkward 






*apt 


character 






*capable 


reputation 






♦skillful 


♦propose 






convene 


♦purpose 






convoke 


♦antiquated 






absurd 


*antique 






foolish 


♦minute 






preposterous 


♦particular 





128 



EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 



Exercise 68. — Oral or Written 
1. Fill in the following blanks with appropriate 
words suggested by the foregoing study. 

1. S. Weir Mitchell's was medicine; his 



was writing. 

2. He made his with his sister. 

3. He built a in the country. 

4. He gave me my of the receipts. 

5. I read him a of the letter. 



6. The word Mississippi was on the 

envelope. 

7. He used the form of the word 

accounts. 

8. He kept an dictionary on his desk. 

9. His business troubles were by the 

failure of the bank. 

10. We were by the secretary's stupidity. 

11. He is advanced in bookkeeping 



— than I did. 
at many stations. 



than I. 

12. She walked 

13. The train — 

14. We there all summer. 

15. I he knows his trade. 

16. Where do you to spend the summer? 

17. I could not him how to do it. 



18. He could 



his lesson with ease after 



that talk. 

19. He could not be held in such an 

event. 

20. She is to slip if she is allowed to go 



21. 



up there. 
It is to snow before night. 



See 

group 

1. 



See 
group 

2. 



See 

group 

3. 



See 

group 

4. 



WORD STUDY 



129 



that bill? 

— the account June 



to 



his accounts 



of the money in real 



22. When can you 

23. I shall be able to - 

12. 

24. He was not able 

without help. 

25. I will invest the — 

estate. 

26. He disposed of the at a great sacrifice. 

27. His client consulted him about securing 

a 

28. No one was able to him the money. 

29. His fortune was ; his home, . 



30. I have the unsteady post arid 

the broken hasp. 

31. His early successes well for the 

future. 

32. We can that he will succeed. 

33. The young man his references with 

him. 

34. Will you please last year's ledger 

from the safe? 

35. What was produced by mixing those 

chemicals? 

36. How did the panic - 

37. This is a specially — 

38. The City Hall is 

section. 

39. The Quakers in Pennsylvania, 

40. Business men are to set a high value 

on time. 

41. Miss Everett is a office assistant. 

42. A workman is needed to do this work. 



- his business? 
part of the city. 

— in the business 



43. What did he - 

44. The governor 



from his investigation? 
- the legislature. 



See 

group 

5. 



See 

group 

6. 



See 
group 

7. 



See 

group 

8. 



See 

group 

9. 



130 



EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 



jewelry and garments of 



45. She wore 

an cut. 

46. We Mrs. Stowell for secretary. 

47. He had to form a stock company. 

48. I do not kn6w his ; I know only 

his . 



49. They inclosed a 

machine. 

50. I do not see any 

scheme. 



description of the 
advantages in that 



See 

group 

10. 



2. Make a list of twenty words which you think 
you overwork. Try to find synonyms for them. 

Exercise 69. — Oral or Written 

The following words and expressions are com- 
monly misused. Divide the list into groups of five. 
Take a group a day, until all have been mastered, 
and write sentences showing the correct use of these 
words and expressions. 

Accept signifies to receive, and must be carefully distin- 
guished from the verb except, meaning to exclude. 
Alike should not be used with both: 

They are alike in their tastes. 
All right should never be written alright. 
Allude to implies indirect reference; refer signifies direct 
mention: 

I alluded to the joys of friendship in my talk on 

Spenser. 
I referred to Hamlet in that illustration. 
Alternative indicates one of only two possibilities. 
Among themselves should be used instead of among one 
another. 

Anywhere should be used instead of any place. 



WORD STUDY 131 

Apparent denotes what seems but may not be real; 
evident denotes what both seems and is real. 

Audience implies listeners; it is often incorrectly used 
for spectators, — those who look on. 

Aware is used with respect to things outside of ourselves; 
conscious, with respect to sensations within ourselves. 

Beg should be followed by leave, when one requests per- 
mission: 

I beg leave to state; I beg leave to differ. 

Between applies to only two things; among should be 
used for three or more. 

Burst is the past participle of burst. Never say bursted. 

Childlike means resembling a child; childish means with 
the weakness of a child. 

Claim should not be used in the sense of assert, maintain, 
or say. 

Compare to means liken to. 

Compare with means point out resemblances and differ- 
ences, measure by. 

Complected is a vulgarism and should not be used for 
complexioned. 

Couple means simply two; several should be used for more 
than two. 

Data is plural and, therefore, requires a plural verb: 
These data are accurate. 

Decided means strong, firm; decisive means final: 

His decided opinions brought about a decisive victory. 

Demean simply designates the act of behavior; debase 
implies bad behavior. 

Discover means to find something already in existence ; 
invent means to create something for the first time. 

Each other is applicable to two only. One another is used 
for more than two. 

Enormity denotes monstrous wickedness or horror; enor- 
mousness, great size. 



132 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

Everywhere should be used instead of every place. 

Exceptional means unusual or describes a case outside 
the operation of a rule ; exceptionable is applied to that 
to which exception or objection may be taken. 

Falseness is used in connection with persons; falsity, in 
connection with things or ideas. 

First is an adverb as well as an adjective. Firstly, though 
permitted, is rarely used. 

Former and latter refer to one of two persons or things. 
In case of more than two, use the first, the second, etc. 

Humane possesses the idea of kindness, considerate 
treatment. It should not be confused with human: 
The S. P. C. A. is a humane society. 

/// is an adverb as well as an adjective. Never say illy. 

Inside of should not be used to denote time. Use within. 

Kind is singular. Do not say these kind. 

Kind of should not be followed by a. It should not be 
used in the sense of rather. 

Last means final and should not be used for latest. 

Less refers to quantity; fewer to numbers: 
There were fewer members in the class this year. 

Like should not be used for as or as if: 
He looked like his cousin. 
He acted as his cousin did. 
He acted as if his cousin were coming. 

Luxuriant means superabundant in growth or production: 
The vegetation is luxuriant. 

Luxurious means given over to luxury: 
The entertainment indicated luxurious living. 

Mighty should not be used in the sense of very. 

Mutual can refer to only two persons or things. Other- 
wise, common should be employed. 

News is singular in construction. 

Nowhere should be used instead of no place. 

Nowhere near is a vulgarism for not nearly. 



WORD STUDY 133 

Of is sometimes wrongly used for have. Say, / should 
have written; not, / should of written. 
Off should never be followed by of. 
Providing is frequently misused for provided: 

Provided you agree, we shall adjourn. 
Quite means entirely, wholly, and not rather, -or very. 
Rarely if ever should be used instead of rarely ever, or 
rarely or ever. 

Same should never be used in such expressions as: Your 
letter received and in reply to same, etc. 

Same as should not be used in the sense of just as, in 
the same manner. 

Seldom if ever should be used instead of seldom ever, or 
seldom or ever. 

So ... as are the proper correlatives in a negative state- 
ment: 

I did not get so far as I had hoped. 

In a positive statement, use as . . . as. 
Sort. See kind. 
Sort of. See kind of. 

Splendid means shining, brilliant, and should not be used 
for fine. 

Such a one, not such an one, is correct. 
Think should not have the word for added: 

It is not so serious as you think. 
Try should be followed by to, not and: 

Try to do better next time. 
Upward of should not be used in the sense of more than. 
Visitor is a human caller; visitant, a supernatural one. 
Ways is often misused for way. 

"It's a long way to Tipperary." 
Whence means from which place or cause; therefore, it 
should not be preceded by from. 



134 



EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 



Exercise 70. — Oral or Written 

1. Try to determine the meanings of the prefixes 
in the following words. 



circumscribe 


conform 


advent 


bisect 


describe 


deform 


invent 


dissect 


inscribe 


inform 


convention 


trisect 


prescribe 


multiform 






subscribe 


perform 


precede 


inject 


superscribe 


reform 


proceed 


interject 


transcribe 


transform 


secede 


object 




uniform 


supersede 


project 
subject 



2. The meanings of a few roots and a derivative 
from each are here given. Supplement all of these 
derivatives by others. Be sure to consult an un- 
abridged dictionary to see if your surmises are correct. 



ject (throw), dejected (literally, thrown down) 

junct (join), junction (a joining) 

mit, mis (send), remit (to send back), submission (lit- 
erally, sending under) 

vent (come, go), prevent (literally, to come before; hence, 
to hinder) 

diet (say, tell, speak, plead, name, appoint), interdict 
(inter, between + dicer e, to say = interdict, a prohibitory 
order or decree) 

duct (lead, guide, haul, bring, prolong, protract), produce 
(pro, forward, forth + ducere, to lead = produce, to lead forth, 
to offer to view, to show, etc.) 

fact (make, do, form, produce, create, appoint), factotum 
(facere, to do + totus, all = factotum, a person employed to 
do all kinds of work or business) 



WORD STUDY 135 

script (scratch, engrave, draw, write), postscript (post, 
after + scribere, to write = postscript, an addition to a com- 
position after the body of it has been finished) 

3. Consult an unabridged dictionary and get the 
full history of the following words: capricious, knave, 
derrick, bamboozle, mesmerize, trite, comet, phaeton, 
graft, bedlam, tawdry, frank, sandwich, sterling. 

4. Consult an unabridged dictionary and find from 
what language these words originally came : wigwam, 
a^jsbra, dynamite, sloop, cigar, novel, caviar, burn, 
burnish, taboo, boomerang, cologne. 

Exercise 71. — Oral 

Examine the following advertisements or parts of 
advertisements. To what kind of people is each 
directed? What words are particularly well chosen to 
make a strong appeal to the taste or needs of such a 
class of readers? Notice the various methods of 
emphasizing words. 

1. Riding in a swiftly gliding NATIONAL is "drawing- 
room comfort" on wheels. It does not require a changed 
mental attitude or sacrifice of bodily comfort. The quickly 
operating machinery makes a pleasure out of the neces- 
sity for transportation. 

Not a discordant note is evident in the new marine 
design of the NATIONAL SIXES: convenient seating 
arrangement; exquisite finish; tonal effects of rich bodies; 
and finely wrought metal. 



136 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

2. OAKLAND 

SAFETY ON THE ROAD 

is assured when you drive the Oakland — 
whether the road be rough country highway 
or paved street in the city. There is lower 
weight suspension — a lower center of gravity — 
that removes danger of sidesway skidding, or 
turning over. Yet this safety is made possible 
without reducing the car's road clearance 
— which is the usual ample clearance. 
This makes the Oakland the car for any road, 
therefore 

THE CAR FOR THE FARM 



3. 



Weavers of Speech 



Upon the magic looms of the Bell these weavers of speech sit silently at 

System, tens of millions of telephone the switchboards, swiftly and skillfully 

messages are daily woven into a mar- interlacing the cords which guide the 

velous fabric, representing the count*- human voice over the country in all 

less activities of a busy people. directions. 

Day and night, invisible hands shift Whether a man wants his neighbor 

the shuttles to and fro, weaving the J n town, or some one in a far-away 

thoughts of men and women into a state; whether the calls come one or ten 

pattern which, if it could be seen as a a minute, the work of the operators is 

tapestry, would tell a dramatic story ever the same— making direct, instant 

of our business and social life. communication everywhere possible 

In its warp and woof would mingle This j s BeU Service# Not on i y j s it 

success and failure, triumph and trag- necessary to provi d e the facilities for 

edy, joy and sorrow, sentiment and ^ wea ving of speech, but these facil- 

shop-talk, heart emotions and million- ^ must be vitalized with ^ skill 

dollar deals. and inte ll igence which, in the Bell 

The weavers are the 70,000 Bell op- System, have made Universal Service 

crators. Out of sight of -the subscribers, the privilege of the millions. 

American Telephone and Telegraph Company 

And Associated Companies 

One Policy One System Universal Service 




Tone 



WORD STUDY 137 

That's where 
the Victrola 
is pre-eminent 

The Victrola brings to you the pure and varied tones of every musical instru* 
ment, and the beauty and individuality of every human voice — all absolutely true 
to. life. 

Such fidelity of tone was unknown before the advent of the Victrola — the first 
'cabinet style talking-machine; and this pure and life-like tone is exclusively a 
Victrola feature. 

Exercise 72.— Written 

Make a collection of advertisements which you feel 
illustrate a purposeful use of words in portraying 
the definite salable characteristics of various com- 
modities. Show in what respects the selected words 
(a) fit the article, (6) stimulate the buying interests 
of readers. 

Advertisers show a keen feeling for the value of 
their words in selecting catchy expressions to describe 




Why the Victor 
9 R Is Best for YOU 

STEREOPTICON 



Portable 



No matter where, when, or under what conditions you intend to use a stereopticon, 
you will find the Victor the most satisfactory for a.multitude of reasons. 

It is Equipped with the Remarkable Victor Arc Lamp 

It can be used with satisfactory The whole field is always clear. Is indestructible.- 

results anywhere. and brilliant. Attaches to any incandescent 

It is light and compact. The light is steady and silent. socket. 

It can be used by any one. Carbons changed from outside WiU not 'crack, slides. 

The light is permanently aligned » 10 wconds. Works at .any distance, 

at factory. Is trouble-proof. Cannot be short-circuited. 

Let us send the Victor Book. It tells all about this remarkable new illustrating device. Write today. 

VICTOR ANIMATOGRAPH COMPANY 

110 VICTOR BUILDING DAVENPORT, IOWA, U. S. A. 



138 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

their wares. Name the commodities which you asso- 
ciate with the following: Chases dirt; Spotless Town; 
Ideal; Holeproof; Wins on merit, not tradition; 
Quality; Royal. 

Add to this list five descriptive epithets that you 
think have been used to advantage by the advertiser. 

Study the words used by the New York Sun in 
this entertaining introduction to the description of a 
dinner given by the Yale Alumni to William Howard 
Taft. Make a list of those words which seem to 
you particularly well chosen. 

If you've ever sat in the enemy's camp when the 
Blue eleven lunged its last yard for a touchdown and 
had your hair ruffled by the roar that swept across the 
gridiron, you can guess how 1,500 Yale men yelled at 
the Waldorf last night for Bill Taft of '78. 

It came all at once, a terrific, ear-jarring crash of 
cheers that danced the glasses on the table tops and 
fluttered the big flags around the balconies. They 
had ceased the pounding chant of "Boola." The 
classes from '53 to '08 had flung the Brek-a-kek-kek, 
Ko-ax, Ko-ax from wall to wall, and the orchestra, 
away up under the roof, had dropped the horns and 
fiddles from sheer weariness. There was a moment 
of unexpected quiet. 

Suddenly the electric fights died all over the 
grand ballroom. A searchlight sprayed its rays 
squarely on a drop curtain which pictured the old 
Brick Row as it was in the days when President 
Taft was a freshman. You could see the rail fence, 
even the initials cut along the boards — "W. H. 
T.," "O. T. B.," "A. T. H." Tall elms leaned 
toward the ancient buildings and spread their foliage 
over the dingy roofs. 

The broad band of light moved up and down 
over the picture, hesitated, then fell squarely on Pres- 
ident Taft as he sat with President Arthur Twining 
Hadley of the university and President James R. 
Sheffield of the Yale Club. The President's head 
was half turned toward the picture of the old Brick 
Row. He wasn't smiling. 

The yell started, spread all over the room and 
gathered force as man after man opened the throttle 
of his lungs and turned on the full power that was 



WORD STUDY 139 

in him and roared and thundered until the lights 
went out again. In the darkness presently the 
old Brick Row appeared and took form. Soft lights 
gleamed at the windows of the dormitories. The 
chapel bell tolled faintly. The cheerful voices of 
freshmen calling to freshmen were heard very faintly. 
A shout only less mighty than the salute to the 
President shook the big room and shortly passed 
to laughter. 

Somebody started a chant. The Yale gradu- 
ates took it up by hundreds until 1,500 of them 
shouted in rhythm: 

Oh, Freshman, put out that light! 
Oh, Freshman, put out that light! 
Oh, Freshman, put out that light! 

That was Yale's greeting to Taft of '78. The 
welcome to President William Howard Taft, who 
happened to have been graduated from Yale and 
not some other university — Harvard, say, or 
Princeton — came later, when President Sheffield 
of the Yale Club and President Hadley sent big words 
over his head and admitted that the character of 
the man had something to do with his rise in the 
world as well as the Yale training. 

E. C. Hill, in "The Sun" March 20, 1909. 

Exercise 73. — Oral 

Examine the following form letter, paragraph by 
paragraph, to discover (a) the effects the writer is 
striving for, (b) the appropriateness of the words 
selected to create these effects. 

HENDRICK HEIGHTS ESTATES 

49 West 36th Street, New York 

William Bayard, President 

July 23, 1921. 
Mr. Robert F. Hawkins, 

Springfield, Mass. 
Dear Sir: 

Believing you to be a citizen who is well and favorably 
known in your community and whose identification with our 



140 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

enterprise will be of valuable assistance to this company, we 
want to enlist your cooperation and influence in our behalf. 

It will not interfere with your present vocation in any 
way, and the effort is well worth while. 

What we are offering is an OPPORTUNITY. 

It is YOURS if you want it. 

It is limited and not free for all. 

Remember MONEY represents the efforts of man, and 
the LUCKY MAN prospers because he keeps posted on 
what is going on and avails himself of OPPORTUNITY when 
it knocks at his door. 

Don't be a pessimist; his point of view is that of the 
unlucky man. If everything were full of flaws, you would 
not have your present connection. 

Let us tell you more about our proposition; then use 
your own judgment. 

Sign and return the inclosed postal card. Full infor- 
mation will be furnished without obligation or expense to 

you. 

Very truly yours, 

J. F. Whiton, Manager. 

Exercise 74. — Practical Problems 

1. You wish to introduce to your school assembly 
an alumnus, who has made an excellent college record 
in scholastic and athletic activities. He is to talk to 
the student body upon Why go to college? Plan your 
introductory speech. Decide upon your purpose; ar- 
range your material according to your purpose; and 
select the words that will convey most clearly and 
forcefully your purpose-idea. Deliver the speech. 

2. You are the business manager of your school 
paper, for which you wish to secure advertisements. 



WORD STUDY 141 

Plan an interview with a collar manufacturer. Select 
those points which will convince him that he should 
advertise his latest style collar in a magazine read by 
many hundreds of young men. Arrange these argu- 
ments so that you will increase his interest gradually 
until the end of the interview is reached. Make a 
written dramatization of this interview. Underline 
all words that you feel convey exactly and forcefully 
your thought. 

3. As in problem 2, you wish to secure advertise- 
ments for your school paper. Write a letter (see 
Chapter XI for the form to follow in such corre- 
spondence) to a distant college which has drawn from 
the graduates of your school, asking for a renewal 
of last year's advertisement. Plan the letter care- 
fully, making every word and sentence count in 
convincing your correspondent of the advantages of 
advertising with you. 

4. You write to an old customer asking him to 
renew his advertisement in your school paper. He 
replies in an injured manner, saying that the details 
of the design inclosing his advertisement were not 
adhered to in the last two issues of the paper. Answer 
the letter. Aim to use purposefully such words as 
will conciliate him and finally secure his continued 
patronage. 

5. Plan, write, and deliver a speech urging all 
students to support advertisers patronizing the school 
paper. Underline in your written speech those words 
that are designed to awaken in your hearers their 
responsibility in this respect. 



142 



EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 



5. Syllabication. — Consult an unabridged dic- 
tionary to discover the exact meaning of the words 
syllable, diphthong, vowel, consonant Pronounce 
carefully the following words, showing by your 
enunciation the syllables into which each is divided. 
Before attempting to do this, however, divide each 
word into syllables. 



business 

advantageous 

conspicuous 

temperament 

embarrassment 

inveterate 

invitation 

accidentally 

coming 

advertisement 

inseparable 

dissatisfy 



disbursement 

stenographic 

instantaneous 

stubbornness 

chieftain 

necessitating 

preparation 

correspondence 

inventory 

inaccessible 

reference 

secretary 



crystallization 

anaesthetic 

artificial 

inexhaustible 

pneumatic 

propeller 

restaurant 

thermometer 

stationary 

quarrying 

restoration 

professor 



Exercise 75. — Oral 

1. From the foregoing study make observations 
by answering these questions. How many vowel 
sounds are found in a syllable? How is a diphthong 
considered in dividing a word ? How does the dou- 
bling of a consonant affect the division of a word? 

2. Consult the dictionary for the proper accenting 
of the following words. Study the list in three assign- 
ments. 



alias 


deficit 


mischievous 


combatant 


municipal 


inquiry 


comparable 


exquisite 


reputable 


chastisement 


formidable 


industry 



• 


WORD STUDY 


143 


superfluous 


irreparable 


illustrate 


acclimate 


exemplary 


defect 


gondola 


misconstrue 


theatre 


hospitable 


precedence 


impious 


irrevocable 


lamentable 


apparatus 


impotent 


ludicrous 


admirable 


3. Practice the 


following words aloud, aiming to 


give to each final syllable its full value 




bookkeeping doing 


anything selling 


speaking 


typewriting getting 


bringing saying 


leaking 


accounting sleeping collecting breaking 


corresponding 


balancing eating 


running advertising measuring 


banking seeing 


buying reading 


meeting 



4. Look up the meanings of the following words. 
Which are verbs? Which, nouns? Formulate the rule. 
Practice the pronunciation by using each in an oral 
sentence. 



contract' 
contract 
contrast' 
contrast 

5. The 
commonly 
dictionary 
attempting 

massacre 

deaf 

acclimate 

gape 

genuine 

creek 

juvenile 



convert' torment' attrib'ute object' 

con'vert tor'ment attribute ob'ject 

rebel' prefix' progress' subject' 

reb'el pre'fix prog'ress sub'ject 

following words contain vowels which are 
mispronounced. Consult an unabridged 
for accent and length of syllables before 

; to do the practice work of this exercise. 

grievous chauffeur 

height 

italic 

sarsaparilla 

heinous 

vaudeville 

heroism 



grimy 

squalor 

Italian 

culinary 

preface 

quay 

heroine 



amateur 

engine 

hearth 

bade 

Genoa 

faucet 



144 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

6. Common Rules for Spelling. — 

1. Final silent e is usually dropped before a suffix 
beginning with a vowel. 

love ing loving 

sense ible sensible 

2. Final silent e is usually retained before a suffix 
beginning with a consonant. 

measure ment measurement 

use ful useful 

Exceptions: acknowledgment, argument, truly. 

3. E is retained in words ending in ce and ge, be- 
fore a suffix beginning with a or o, in order to preserve 
the soft sound of c and g. 

serviceable outrageous 

marriageable advantageous 

4. Final y preceded by a vowel is generally retained 
before a suffix. 

delaying paying obeying 

staying enjoying buying 

5. Final y preceded by a consonant generally 
changes to i before a suffix beginning with any other 
letter than i. 

dictionary try supply 

dictionaries tries supplies 

laboratory fly factory 

laboratories flies factories 



WORD STUDY 145 

6. The i must always follow e 
If the two come after c; 

And if they give the sound of a 
Arrange them in the selfsame way. 
Whenever other words you try, 
Letter e will follow i. 
Any exceptions found to these? 
There are a few; just look at seize.* 

receive conceive weight chief yield 

receipt perceive sleigh relieve siege 

* Also: either, inveigle, leisure, neither, weird. 

7. One I is usually dropped from a prefix or a 
suffix ending in 11. 

tact full all most full fill mind full 

tactful almost fulfill mindful 

8. The prefixes dis, mis, im, in, ir, un, etc. and the 
suffixes ly and ness do not usually affect the spelling 
of words to which they are added. 

dissatisfy immovable usually 

misstate innumerable commercially 

irregular unnecessary stubbornness 

9. Monosyllables and words accented on the last 
syllable, ending in a single consonant preceded by a 
single vowel, generally double the final consonant 
before a suffix beginning with a vowel. 

hop run transfer plan 

hopping running transferred planning 

10. Observe the importance of determining the 
accent of words that come under Rule 9. Suffer 
for instance, although it ends in a single consonant 



146 



EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 



preceded by a single vowel, does not double the final 
consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel, 
because the accent falls on the first syllable. 
Other words of this class are : 



benefit 
benefiting 



banquet 
banqueting 



summon 
summoning 



Exercise 76. — Oral or Written 
Study the following words. Give the reason for 
the spelling of each word marked with the asterisk. 



measure 


encourage 


apparel 


hop 


*measuring 


*encouraging 


*appareled 


*hopping 


*measureless 


^encouragement 


love 


hope 


enlarge 


indorse 


*lovahle 


*hoping 


*enlargement 


indorsing 


*loving 


plane 


induce 


*indorsement 


prepay 


*planing 


*inducement 


reverse 


*prepaying 


come 


*receive 


*reversal 


commit 


*coming 


deceiving 


*reverser 


^committing 


plan 


^receivable 


*reversible 


*committal 


*planning 


*believe 


Reversing 


Commitment 


remorse 


believable 


entangle 


*committee 


*remorseful 


*believing 


^entanglement 






I. General Words Frequently Misspelled 




Lesson 1 




ab bre'vi a'tion 


ac cept'ance 


ac knowFedg ment 


a bom'i na ble 


ac ces'si ble 


ac quaint'ance 


a bridg'ment 


ac'ci den'tal ly ac quire 


/ment 


ab'scess 


ac com'mo date ac quit'tal 


a bun'dant 


ac com'pa ni 


ment ac'tor 




ac cede' 


ac cord'ance 


ad dress 


/ 


ac cel'er ate 


ac'cu ra cy 


ad'e quate 


ac cept'a ble 


a chieve'ment ad mis'si ble 






WORD STUDY 



147 



ad vis'er 
ag grieve' 
a gil'i ty 
a gree'a ble 
a lign'ment 
all right 
al le'giance 
aTma nac 



ap point' 
ap'pre hen'sion 
ap proach' 
ap pro'pri ate 
ar'chi tect 
arc'tic 
ar'gu ment 
ar raign'ment 



au'di tor 
au'then tic'i ty 
au thor'i ty 
au'tumn 
aux il'i a ry 
av'e nue 
awk'ward 
bal loon' 



Lesson 2 
al though' 
al'to geth'er 
am'a teur' 
am big'u ous 
an'a lyt'ic 
an'gel 
an'gle 
an ni'hi late 

Lesson 3 

ar range'ment 
as cend' 
as'cer tain' 
as sas'sin 
as ses'sor 
as sid'u ous 
as sim'i late 
as sist'ance 

Lesson U 
bal'lot ing 
ba'sin 
bat tal'ion 
be gin'ning 
be lieve' 
ben'e dic'tion 
ben e fi'cial 
ben'e fac'tor 



an m ver sa ry 
an nounce'ment 
a non'y mous 
an tith'e sis 
anx i'e ty 
ap pall' 
ap par'ent 
ap pear'ance 



as so'ci ate 
as sort'ment 
as sump'tion 
a sy'lum 
ath let'ics 
at tain'a ble 
at tend'ance 
au'di ence 



ben'e fit 
be nev'o lent 
be siege' 
bi'cy cle 
billiards 
blam'a ble 
blas'phe mous 
breadth 



break'age 
briTliant 
buc'ca neer' 
bu'reau 



Lesson 5 
can'di date 
cap'i tol 
cap'tain 
car'tridge 



cem'e ter y 
cen ten'ni al 
cer'e mo ny 
ces sa'tion 



148 



EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 



bur'glar 
ca lam'i ty 
caTen dar 
cam'era 



cat'a logue 
ca tarrh' 
ca tas'tro phe 
ceil'ing 



change'a ble 
chap'er on 
char'ac ter i za'tion 
charge'a ble 



char'i ta ble 

chas'tise ment 

chieftain 

chif 'fo nier' 

ci'pher 

cir cu'i tous 

cir'cu lar 

cir cum'fer ence 



Lesson 6 
cir'cum scribe' 
cite 

cir'cum stance 
ci vil'i ty 
cloth 
clothe 
col'o nize 
co los'sal 



com 'bat ant 
com mit'tee 
com mu'ni cate 
com par'i son 
com'ple ment 
com'pli ment 
com'pre hen'si ble 
con cede' 



con ceiv'a ble 
con cur'rence 
con fes'sor 
con'quer or 
con'sci en'tious 
con'scious 
con spic'u ous 
con tem'po ra ry 



Lesson 7 
con tempt'i ble 
con temp'tu ous 
con tin'gent 
cor'dial ly 
cor'o na'tion 
cor rel'a tive 
cor're spond'ence 
coun'se lor 



coun'ter feit 
cou ra'geous 
cour'te ous 
ere a 'tor 
ere den'tials 
cred'i ble 
crit'i cism 
cru'ei fy 



cur ric'u lum 
cur'tain 
cus to'di an 
cy lin'dri cal 
cyn'ic 
de bat'a ble 
de bat'er 
de ceive' 



Lesson 8 
de fend'ant 
de fen'si ble 
de ferred' 
def 'er ence 
de li'cient 
de fin'a ble 
def 'i nite 
del'e gate 



de Ub'er a'tion 
de lir'i ous 
de scribe' 
de sir'a ble 
de spair' 
de struc'tion 
de terred' 
de vel'op 





WORD STUDY 






Lesson 9 




de vice' 


dis'ap prov'al 


dis satis fy 


differ ence 


dis as'ter 


dis'si pa'tion 


dif 'fi dent 


dis cernl ble 


dis suade' 


di lapl dat'ed 


dis'ci pline 


dis tinc'tion 


dirl gi ble 


dis cour'age ment 


dyeing 


dis'a gree'a ble 


dis creet' 


dying 


dis'ap pear'ance 


dis cre'tion 


early 


dis'ap point' 


dis lodgement 
Lesson 10 


ear'nest 


ec cen'tric 


e lim'i nate 


er ro'ne ous 


ec cle'si as'ti cal 


em bar'rass 


es pe'cial ly 


e'co noml cal 


e mer'gen cy 


evl dent ly 


edl tor 


eml nent 


ex ag'ger ate 


ef fi'cient 


en deav'or 


ex as'per ate 


e lab'o rate 


en vi'ron ment 


ex ceed' 


el'e gance 


e quiv'a lent 


ex cite'ment 


eFi gi ble 


e ra'sure 

Lesson 11 


ex cus'a ble 


ex hil'a rate 


fa miliar 


flat'ter y 


ex ist'ence 


fas'ci na'tion 


flexl ble 


ex or'bi tant 


fas tid'i ous 


for'ci bly 


ex'pla na'tion 


Feb'ru a ry 


fore'head 


ex traor'di na ry 


fierce 


for'feit 


ex trav'a gant 


fi'ery 


for'mal ly 


fa cil'i tate 


fi'nal ly 


for'mer ly 


fac sim'ile 


finely 

Lesson 12 


for'ty 


four 


gram'mar 


hei'nous 


fu'tile 


griev'ous 


heir 


gallop 


gri mace' 


hem'or rhage 



149 



150 



EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 



gen'er al ly 
ghost 
god'dess 
gor'geous 
gov'er nor 



id'i o syn'cra sy 
il leg'i ble 
il lu'mi nate 
il lu'sion 
il lus'trate 
im ag'i na ble 
im'i tate 
im me'di ate ly 



in'de pend'ence 
in'de scrib'a ble 
in'de struct'i ble 
in dic'a tive 
in'di gest'i ble 
in'dis pen'sa ble 
in'di vid'u al 
in dom'i ta ble 



in'tri ca cy 
in vei'gle 
in ves'ti ga'tion 
in vin'ci ble 
i ras'ci ble 
ir reg'u lar 
ir rel'e vant 
ir're me'di a ble 



gym na si um 
hag'gard 
har'ass 
haz'ard ous 
hearth 

Lesson 13 
im'mi grate 
im'mi nent 
im pass'a ble 
im pas'si ble 
im pos'si bil'i ty 
im prove'ment 
in'ad vert'ent 
in'as much' 

Lesson Ik 
in dul'gent 
in'ex cus'a ble 
in'ex haust'i ble 
in'ex pe'di ent 
in'fa mous 
in flam'ma ble 
in fringe'ment 
in gen'ious 

Lesson 15 
ir rep'a ra ble 
ir're spec'tive 
ir'ri gate 
ir'ri ta ble 
isth'mus 
jeal'ous 
jeop'ard y 
ju di'cious 



hos'pi ta ble 
hy poc'ri sy 
hy poth'e sis 
i'ci cle 
i den'ti cal 



in au'gu rate 
in'ci den'tal ly 
in cip'i ent 
in com'par a ble 
in'con ceiv'a ble 
in cred'i ble 
in cred'u lous 
in del'i ble 



in gen u ous 
in i'tial 
in quis'i tive 
in sep'a ra ble 
in sist'ence 
in suffer a ble 
in'te gral 
in terii gi ble 



ju've nile 
ker'o sene' 
kin'der gar'ten 
knead 
knowledge 
lab'o ra to ry 
lat'tice 
lav'en der 



WORD STUDY 



151 



leg'i ble 
le git'i mate 
leisure 
le'ni ence 
li'bra ry 
li'cense 
lieu ten' ant 
lin'e a ment 



Lesson 16 
lin'i ment 
live'li hood 
loathe 
lodg'ment 
lone'li ness 
Ion gev'i ty 
lu'cra tive 
lus'cious 



lux u'ri ant 
lux u'ri ous 
ly'ing 
mack'er el 
mag'a zine' 
mag nif 'i cent 
ma hog'a ny 
maintain' 



main'te nance 
mal'ice 
ma lign' 
man'age ment 
mar'riage a ble 
mas'quer ade' 
max'im 
meant 



Lesson 17 
meas'ur a ble 
meas'ure ment 
mem'o ra ble 
me nag'er ie 
mile'age 
mini a ture 
mi rac'u lous 
mis'cel la'ne ous 



mis'chie vous 
mis shap'en 
mis'sile 
mis spell' 
moc'ca sin 
mo'men ta ry 
mon'arch y 
mo not'o nous 



mu nic'i pal 
mus'cle 
mys te'ri ous 
nas tur'tium 
nav'i ga ble 
nec'es sa ry 
neigh'bor 
neu ral'gi a 



Lesson 18 
nick'el 
niece 
nine'teen 
nine'ti eth 
nine'ty 
ninth 
non'sense 
no'tice a ble 



nuisance 
o be'di ent 
o bei'sance 
ob serv'ance 
oc ca'sion al ly 
oc'cu pa'tion 
oc curred' 
oc cur'rence 



o'dious 
o'dor ous 
o mis'sion 



Lesson 19 
o rig'i nal 
os'tra cize 
out ra'geous 



pam'phlet 
par'al lei 
par'lia ment 



152 



EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 



om nip'o tence 
op po'nent 
op'por tu'ni ty 
or'a tor 
or'ches tra 



pe cu'ni a ry 
pen'ance 
pen'i ten'tia ry 
pen'ni less 
per'co late 
per'ish a ble 
per'ma nent 
per mis'si ble 



pos ses sion 
post pone' 
prac'ti cal ly 
prai'rie 
pre cede' 
prec'e dent 
prec'i pice 
pred'e ces'sor 



pro scribe' 
pros'e cute 
psy chol'o gy 
pub lic'i ty 
pum'ice 
punc'tu al 
pur sue' 
pyr'a mid 



o'ver alls' 
o'ver haul' 
pac'i fy 
pag'eant 
pal'at a ble 

Lesson 20 
per'se cute 
per'se ver'ance 
per sist'ent 
per suade' 
pes'ti lence 
phi lan'thro py 
phi los'o pher 
phy si'cian 

Lesson 21 
prefer ence 
prej'u dice 
pre lim'i na ry 
pre par'a to ry 
prev'a lent 
prin'ci pal 
prin'ci pal ly 
prin'ci pie 

Lesson 22 
qual'i ty 
quan'da ry 
quan'ti ty 
quar'rel 
quay 

quer'u lous 
quiz'zi cal 
quo ta'tion 



par tic'i pate 
par tic'u lar 
pa virion 
peace'a ble 
pe cuTiar 



piece 
pierce 
pi'geon 
planned 
plau'si ble 
pleas'ant 
plen'te ous 
plu'ral 



priv'i lege 
pro ceed' 
pro di'gious 
pro fes'sor 
pro fi'cient 
prom'e nade' 
prom'i nent 
pro nun'ci a'tion 

ra'di ant 
rad'i cal 
realm 
recede' 
re ceipt' 
re ceive' 
re cep'ta cle 
re cip'i ent 





WORD STUDY 


1 




Lesson 23 




rec'om mend' 


re mis'sion 


res'i dence 


re curred' 


Ren'ais sance' 


re sist'ance 


re ferred' 


rep'a ra'tion 


re spect'ful ly 


re gret'ta ble 


re pel'lent 


re spon'si bil'i ty 


re lieve' 


rep'e ti'tion 


res'tau rant 


re li'gious 


rep're hen'si ble 


res'ur rec'tion 


re mem'brance 


rep're sent'a tive 


re sus'ci tate 


rem'i nis'cence 


re prieve' 

Lesson 24 


re trieve' 


rev'e la'tion 


run'ning 


scarce'ly 


re ver'ber ate 


sac'ri fice 


sched'ule 


rev'o lu'tion ar y 


sac ri le'gious 


scheme 


rhap'so dy 


safety 


schol'ar 


rheu mat'ic 


sap'phire 


sci'ence 


rhythm 


sat'ire 


scin'til late 


ri dic'u lous 


sat'is fac'to ry 


scis'sors 


right'eous 


sat'yr 

Lesson 25 


screech 


sculpture 


sep'a rate 


sher'iff 


se cede' 


se'ri ous 


shield 


se'cre cy 


ser'pent 


shin'y 


sec're ta ry 


serv'ant 


siege 


seize 


service a ble 


sig'na ture 


sen'a tor 


sheath 


sim'i lar 


sen'si ble 


sheathe 


sim'i lar'i ty 


sep'a ra ble 


shep'herd 
Lesson 26 


si'mul ta'ne ous 


sin cerely 


sov'er eign 


sta'tion er y 


singe 


spe'cial ty 


sta tis'tics 


siz'a ble 


spe'cies 


strat'e gy 



153 



154 



EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 



soFder 


spec'i men 


strength 


sol'dier 


spirit u al 


stren'u ous 


som'er sault 


spirit u ous 


sub scrip'tion 


soph'o more 


squeamish 


sub' si dize 


sou've nir' 


station a ry 

Lesson 27 


sub stan'ti ate 


sue ceed' 


sur prise' 


tan'ta lize 


sue cess'ful 


sur ren'der 


tar'ifF 


suf fi'cient 


sus pense' 


tech'ni cal 


suit'or 


sym met'ri cal 


tem'per a ment 


sum'ma ry 


sym'pa thize 


tend'en cy 


su'per fi'cial 


sys'tem a tize 


ten'e ment 


su'per sede' 


tan gen'tial 


ten'ta cle 


su'per sti'tious 


tan'gi ble 

Lesson 28 


ter'ri fy 


therefore 


tour'na ment 


trench'ant 


thief 


trace'a ble 


triv'i al 


thor'ough 


trag'e dy 


ty ran'ni cal 


through 


tran quilli ty 


um'pire 


tid'al 


trans fer'a ble 


u nanl mous 


tinge 


tran'si tive 


un doubt'ed ly 


to geth'er 


treach'er ous 


u'ni ver'si ty 


tor'tu ous 


tre men'dous 
Lesson 29 


un til' 


u'su al ly 


va'ri a ble 


vet'er i na ry 


u'su ry 


va'ri e gat'ed 


vFcious 


vac'ci natf 


va ri'e ty 


vi cis'si tude 


vac'il late 


vaude'ville 


victual 


vac'u um 


venge'ance 


village 


vaguely 


ven'ture some 


villain 


vaFleys 


ver'i fy 


visl ble 


vaFu a ble 


vet'er an 


visl tor 





WORD STUDY 






Lesson 30 




vo cab'u la ry 


where'fore 


xylo phone 


volleys 


wher ev'er 


yacht „ 


vol'iin ta ry 


whether 


yield 


vy'ing 


whole'some 


yolk 


war'rior 


whose 


zeal'ot 


wea'ri some 


wit'ness 


zeph'yr 


Wednesday 


worsted 


zig'zag' 


weight 


wrenched 


zo 6To gy 




II. Business Words 




Lesson 1 




ad dress'ee' 


al u'mi num 


bal brig'gan 


ad minis tra'tor 


a'pri cot 


ba na'na 


ad ver'tise ment 


as'set 


bank draft 


alTspice' 


as'sign ee' 


bank book 


al'mond 


as'sign or' 


bank note 


al pac'a 


at'om iz'er 


bankrupt 


al'ter a'tion 


au'gur 


bar'gain 


al'u mini urn 


baTance 

Lesson 2 


ba tiste' 


ben'e fi'ci a ry 


buTlion 


cas'tile 


ben'ga line 


business 


cel'er y 


bill of lading 


call co 


ce rise' 


book'keep'er 


cam'bric 


cer tif 1 cate 


bou'illon' 


capl tal 


cer'ti fied 


bril'lian tine 


car'go 


cham'ois 


broad'cloth 


cash ier' 


chat'tel 


buck'ram 


cash'mere 

Lesson 3 


che nille' 


chevl ot 


clerk 


con'fi den'tial 


chiffon 


col lat'er al 


con'sign ee' 



155 



156 



EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 



chin chil'la 


co logne' 


con sign'ment 


chintz 


com mission 


con sign'or 


chis'el 


com modi ty 


con soil da'tion 


choc'o late 


com'pu ta'tion 


co op'er a'tion 


ci'der 


con cise'ness 


cor'du roy 


cin'na mon 


con fec'tion er y 
Lesson U 


cor're spond'ence 


cou'pon 


crin'o Une 


debit 


cour'te sy 


cu'mu la tive 


debt'or 


cra'ven ette' 


cur'rant 


de fi'cien cy 


ere den'tials 


cur'ren cy 


def 1 cit 


credl tor 


cur'rent 


de lin'quent 


crepe 


cus'tom er 


de mur'rage 


cre'pon 


cutler y 


de part'ment 


cretonne' 


dam'ask 

Lesson 5 


de posl tor 


dic'to graph 


du'pli cate 


es tate' 


die ta'tion 


em broid'er y 


ex ec'u tor 


diml ty 


em ploy ee' 


ex port'er 


di rec'tor 


em ploy'er 


fi nan'cial 


dis burse'ment 


en dow'ment 


fis'cal 


dis place'ment 


en'gi neer' 


flan'nel 


dis trib'ute 


entries 


fluc'tu ate 


draw ee' 


e'o'lienne' 

Lesson 6 


fore clo'sure 


fou lard' 


hard'ware' 


in'ven to ry 


freight 


here with' 


in ves'tor 


gel'a tine 


hoarding 


in'voice 


gher'kins 


im port' er 


job'ber 


ging'ham 


in close' 


jute 


gren'a dine 


in'dor see' 


kha'ki 


guar'an tee' 


in sol'ven cy 


la'bel 


hand'ker chief 


in'ter est 


landlord 



WORD STUDY 



157 



lease 
ledg'er 
les see' 
let'tuce 
li'a bill ties 
li nole urn 
lin'sey-wool'sey 
liq'ui date 



merg er 
me ri'no 
mes'sa line' 
mini mum 
mo'hair' 
mo las'ses 
mortgage 
mort'ga gee' 



per fum'er y 
pickle 
poll cy 
pon gee' 
poplin 
por'ce lain 
pre 'mi urn 
promls so ry 



sal'a ble 
saTa ry 
sales'man 
salm'on 



Lesson 7 
lisle 

lo'co mo'tive 
mac'a ro'ni 
mac'a roon' 
mackl naw 
ma dras' 
man'tel 
man'tle 



man'u fac'tur er 
mar settles' 
ma tu'ri ty 
maxl mum 
may'on naise' 
mem'o ran'dum 
mer'can tile 
mer'chan dise 



Lesson 8 

muslin o'ver drawn' 

nain'sook par ti'tion 

ne go'ti a ble par'cel 

non'par tic'i patlng pass book 

no'ta ry pay'a ble 

ole o mar'ga rine pay ee' 

op'er a'tor per'ca line' 

op'tion per cent'age 



Lesson 9 
pro ra'ta 
prop o si'tion 
pro spec'tus 
provl dent 
proxl mo 
pump'kin 
rai'sin 
rasp'ber ry 

Lesson 10 
script 
scythe 
se cu'ri ty 

serge 



razor 
refer ence 
re frig'er a' tor 
re li'a bill ty 
re mit'tance 
rho'do den'dron 
rhu'barb 
sa'chet' 



spe cie 

spec! fl ca'tion 
ste nog'ra pher 
stock'hold'er 



158 



EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 



salve 

sar'sa pa rilla 
sa teen' 
scrip 

tan'ger ine 

tap'i o'ca 

ten'ant 

to bac'co 

ton'nage 

ton'tine 

train' dis patch'er 

trans mit'ting 



ac cel'er a'tion 
a cet'y lene 
a cid'i fi caption 
ad he'sion 
a e'ri al 
al bu'men 
al'ka loid 
alio tropic 



ar'ti fi'cial 
at'mos pherlc 
au'to matlc 
ballast 
ba rom'e ter 
ba sicl ty 
Bes'se mer 
bi suTphite 



share'hold'er 
sirloin' 
sol'vent 
spa ghet'ti 

Lesson 11 
tri'al bal'ance 
trus tee' 
type'writ er 
ul'ti mo 
u ten'sil 
u till ties 
vaTu a'tion 
va nilla 

III. Technical Words 

Lesson 1 
alloy' 

a mal'ga mat'ed 
am'mo ni'a cal 
am pere' 
a nal'o gous 
a nal'y sis 
an'gu lar 
anl line 

Lesson 2 
bi tu'mi nous 
bo raclc 
bro'mide 
buoy'ant 
cal'ci na'tion 
cal'o rie 
can'ner y 
capll la ry 



sub sidl a ry 
sur'plus 
syn'di cate 
taf 'fe ta 



veg'e ta ble 
ve lours' 
ver'mi cel'li 
vin'e gar 
voile 
vouch'er 
war'ran ty 
whole'sale' 



an neallng 
an'thra cite 
aq'ue duct 
a 'que ous 
ar'chi tec'ture 
ar'gen tif 'er ous 
ar se'ni ous 
ar te'sian 



car'bu ret'or 
cat'a lytic 
cellu lose 
cen trif'u gal 
cen trip'e tal 
chlo'rin a'tion 
chlo'ro form 
cin'na bar 



WORD STUDY 



159 



cir'cuit 
co ag'u la'tion 
collier y 
coron nade' 
com'mu ta'tor 
com'ple men'ta ry 
concrete 
con'duit 



Lesson 3 
con'ser va'tion 
con vec'tion 
cor're la'tion 
cou lomb' 
crypt 

crys'tal li za'tion 
cu'li na ry 
cur'vi lin'e ar 



def la gra'tion 
del'i ques'cence 
derrick 
di'a gram 
di'a phragm 
differ en'tial 
dif fu'sion 
di mention 



dis so'ci a'tion 
dor'mer 
dredging 
dy'na mom'e ter 
dy'na mos 
e clipse' 
ef fer ves'cence 
ef'flo res'cence 



Lesson U 
e'las tic'i ty 
e lee trol'y sis 
e lec'tro lyte 
e lec'tro typ'ing 
el lip'ti cal 
em pir'i cal 
e'qui lat'er al 
ex'ca va'tion 



Fah'ren heit 
fil'a ment 
form aTde hyde 
ga'ble 

gaFva nom'e ter 
gird'er 
glob'u lar 
grav'i ta'tion 



gypsum 

ho mol'o goms 

hy drau'lic 

hy drol'y sis 

hy'gro scop'ic 

hy'per bol'ic 

ig nFtion 

im pen'e tra bil'i ty 



Lesson 5 
in'can des'cence 
in flam'ma ble 
in'got 

in'su la'tion 
in' ter mit'tent 
ir'ri ga'tion 
i soch'ro nous 
i'so la'tion 



i'so therm 
ki ne'to scope 
lau'da num 
liq'ue fac'tion 
liq'ue fied 
log'a rithm 
lu'mi nos'i ty 
mac ad'am ize 



ma chin'er y 
man'ga nese' 
ma'son ry 



Lesson 6 
min'a ret 
mol'e cule 
mor'dant 



neu'tral ize 
nick'el 
nu tri'tion 



160 



EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 



mech'a nism 
me daTlion 
mer'cu ry 
met'al loids 
met'al lur'gy 



oxl diz'ing 
ox'y gen 
par'a bollc 
par'tial 
ped'es tal 
pen'du lum 
per'me a ble 



mo sa ic 
mul'lion 
mul'ti pie 
naph'tha 
nas'cent 

Lesson 7 
physics 

phys'i o logl cal 
pillar 
pneu matlc 
polar i za'tion 
por'ti co 
po ten'tial 



phos'phor es'cence pris mat/ic 



o paque' 
os'cil la'tion 
os mot/ic 
ox allc 
oxl da'tion 



proc ess 
prop'a ga'tion 
pro peller 
quad ran'gu lar 
quail ta tive 
quan'ti ta tive 
quar'ry ing 
rar'e fied 



re'en force'ment 
re stor'a tive 
semi per'me a ble 
sole noid 
so lid'i fy'ing 
static 
stuc'co 
suTphur 



Lesson 8 
syn'the sis 
tap'es try 
tech nol'o gy 
tex'tile 
the'o retl cal 
ther mom'e ter 
Tor'ri celli an 
trans lu'cent 



tres'tle 
trough 
tu'bu lar 
ver'di gris 
vis cosl ty 
vol'a tile 
wrought 
zinc 



Chapter VII 

THE RHETORIC OF THE SENTENCE 

1. Unity. — Suppose you glance at a well- 
constructed locomotive. At once you get a single, 
big impression of its strength and power. Then 
examine its parts. Every one of them, the boiler, 
the wheels, the piston, contributes towards de- 
veloping the main impression. In like manner 
our writing, at all times, should convey a single- 
ness of impression. Not only the composition as a 
whole, but the details that enter into the composi- 
tion itself, must be governed by this principle. 
Every sentence must convey its own definite im- 
pression. It must set forth one single, dominant 
idea, which we call its central thought. All the 
smaller details in the sentence must be chosen 
with the view of making this central thought stand 
out clearly. This principle is called unity. 

Exercise 77. — Oral 

What is the central thought of the following 
sentence ? 

Her writing desk was a marvel of neatness, every thing 
in its precise place, the writing paper in geometrical 
parallelograms, the pen tray neatly polished. 

Mrs. Humphry Ward: Lady Rose's Daughter. 

Separate the foregoing sentence into the parts 
indicated by the subjoined outline. 

161 



162 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

I. General statement of the central thought 

II. Explanatory details 

A. Order 

B. Arrangement 

C. Care 

Select from the following sentences the part that 
expresses the central thought. Show how the other 
parts contribute to this. '. 

1. The vessel, which was old and weather beaten, could 
not approach the shore because of the strong Wind and the 
beating waves. 

2. No sign of life was apparent ; no light at any window, 

unless it might have been on the side of the house hidden 

from view. 

George W. Cable 

3. Debt is to a man what the serpent is to the bird : its 

eye fascinates, its breath poisons, its coil crushes both sinews 

and bone, its jaw is the pitiless grave. 

Bulwer-Lytton 

4. The moral energy of nations, as of individuals, is 

sustained only by an ideal higher than themselves, and 

stronger than themselves, to which they cling firmly when 

they feel their courage waver. 

Henri Bergson 

5. Poetry is an art, and chief of the fine arts; the easiest 
to dabble in, the hardest in which to reach true excellenceo 

Edmund Clarence Stedman 

Exercise 78. — Oral 

Compare the sentences in each of the following 
groups. Which converge steadily toward a central 
thought? Which diverge from it; i.e., present unre- 
lated points ? 



THE RHETORIC OF THE SENTENCE 163 

1. (a) While in the woods, he killed a snake much like 
the one killed on his uncle's farm. 

(6) While in the woods, he killed a snake much like 
the one killed on his uncle's farm, containing many acres 
and situated many miles away. 

2. (a) Dickens was a friend of the poor for he was the 
champion of their cause. 

(6) Dickens was a friend of the poor for he was the cham- 
pion of their cause and, besides, he wrote many interesting 
novels. 

3. (a) Washington was a great soldier, firm, brave, and 
cautious. 

(6) Washington was a great soldier, firm, brave, and cau- 
tious, and he was called the Father of his Country. 

4. (a) Shakespeare received a grammar school education. 
(b) Shakespeare received a grammar school education but 

he had to leave his native town. 

Exercise 79. — Oral or Written 

Explain why the following sentences from pupil 
themes do not possess unity. Determine first upon 
the purpose for which each sentence was written. 
Point out what material has been introduced which 
does not aid the purpose and hence destroys unity. 
Reconstruct each sentence, using only the elements 
necessary to express the purpose of the sentence or 
subordinating uniniportant ideas. 

1. The doctor was sent for and the sick man was soon 
relieved, but as night came on the wind blew a gale. 

2. We went to the village and there we saw old friends 
and they invited us to play tennis and we did so and had a 
great game. 

3. Baseball gives fine exercise but a good ball costs too 
much. 



164 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

4. William is good to his mother and he is also a good 
athlete. 

5. One day, thinking that his horse was too much to 
provide for, the knight turned him out of the stable, which 
was none too clean. 

6. However, when he became about sixty years of age, 
he lost his taste for animals and all other things of interest 
but gold, and one of his horses, which served him faithfully 
in the wars, where he made a fortune for him. 

7. There happened, by chance, to be living in the small 
town, a rich knight, who now growing old cared more for 
his gold than his possessions, so he sold them all except one 
horse, the latter his favorite steed, which had carried him 
through many a battle. 

8. After the bell had been put in place, the king called 
all the people together and told them the purpose of the 
bell, it being hung there in order that the people who had 
been wronged might ring the bell and the injustice righted, 
and so the bell did its duty. 

9. But now as he had grown old he cared for gold, so he 
sold all but one horse which had been his companion and had 
taken him through the wars in safety, but was now too old 
to do any work, and so he made up his mind he could not 
keep him any longer. 

10. As he neared the market place, he saw a vine which 
had grown around the rope of the bell and went toward it 
and as he gnawed at the vine the bell rang and the people 
not familiar with the sound went to the market place and 
there they saw the horse. 

Exercise 80. — Oral 

Combine the sentences of each of the following 
groups into a single well-knit sentence that is con- 
trolled by a central thought, or, in other words, that 



THE RHETORIC OF THE SENTENCE 165 

possesses unity. Be sure that you show clearly the 
central thought. 

1. The road was level and easy. We bowled along 
smoothly through the valley of the Mohawk. We drove 
under drooping birch trees and through green fields. 

2. The surging sea beat upon the beach. Along the 
margin of the beach were small rocks. The rocks were 
covered with seaweed. The seaweed was of a peculiar 
variety. 

3. I am most uneasy. The red bird is forced to leave 
the covert of the cedars. He is hungry. He hunts on the 
snow for food. The white snow shows him too clearly. He 
becomes a challenge for his enemies. 

4. One hope was left to me. It was that she might have 
overlooked something in the chain of evidence. This was, 
perhaps, a mere trifle. It might, nevertheless, be made 
the means of vindicating my innocence. 

5. Among the evergreen branches overhead were gaily 
dressed warblers. They are the dandies of the forest. They 
were flitting to and fro. They were lisping their June songs 
of contented love. The notes were milder, slower, lazier 
than those in which they voiced the raptures of May. 

6. I walked last night under the cedars. They stand in 
the front yard. I listened to the music. It was at once so 
cheery and so sad. It was the low chirping of the birds. 
They had gathered in from the frozen fields. They had 
settled for the night in the shelter of the evergreens. 

7. The cottage was approached by a quiet byroad. It 
was a short distance away from the town. It stood snugly 
in the middle of its own plot of garden ground. A good 
brick wall protected it at the back and the sides. There 
was a high quickset hedge in front. 

8. He led the way through the gap in the wall. He went 
to a patch of turf on the heathy ground. On the side near- 



166 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

est the road it was screened by bushes and dwarf trees. It 
commanded a view in the opposite direction over the broad 
brown wilderness of the moor. This view was grandly 
desolate. 

Exercise 81. — Written. 

1. Use each of the following sentences as a central 
thought. In each expand the idea expressed in italics. 
Prove that each expanded sentence has unity. 

1. The city was gay with life and excitement. 

2. The city was full of sadness and gloom. 

3. New York is a great center of commerce. 

4. Boston is crowded with historic interest. 

5. St. Louis is fortunate in its geographic situation. 

2. Write one or more sentences on each of the fol- 
lowing subjects. Let the word, or words, in italics 
indicate, in each case, the central thought to be ex- 
pressed, or the single impression to be given. Put 
nothing into the sentence that does not, in some way, 
contribute to the central thought. 

1. A cold winter day. 

2. A hungry dog. 

3. The beauty and grace of a sailboat. 

4. A dark summer night. 

2. Coherence. — Coherence bears a close rela- 
tion to unity, for it is concerned with the careful 
arrangement of the details of the sentence. We 
have already used the illustration of a locomotive. 
Let us imagine that we are in a machine shop. We 
perceive, here and there, the various parts of a 



THE RHETORIC OF THE SENTENCE 167 

locomotive. Before it can be completed, the me- 
chanics have to know how to place, arrange, and 
relate even the smallest mechanical details. The 
locomotive is ready for operation only when all 
its parts cohere (i.e., "hang together"). 

In a sentence we must aim to place words, 
phrases, and clauses, in such positions that their 
meaning and their relation to the words which 
they modify, are unmistakable. By such care in 
arrangement, the sentence gains coherence. Re- 
read Chapter HI, page 51. 

Exercise 82. — Oral 

The following sentences were developed by com- 
bining those in brackets. Determine which of the 
combined sentences expresses the bracketed ideas 
coherently. 

David Garrick inaugurated a new plan. 

This plan was concerned with the conducting of 

rehearsals. 
It was started when he became manager of Drury 

Lane Theatre. 

When David Garrick became manager of Drury Lane 
Theater, he inaugurated a new plan for rehearsals. 

David Garrick inaugurated a new plan when he became 
manager of Drury Lane Theater for rehearsals. 

~ f Henry was carrying the child. 
{ He was also crying. 

Henry carried the child while crying. 
Henry, while crying, carried the child. 



168 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

f John wrote to his father. 
3. j He wrote about his plans. 
I His father was in New York. 

John wrote to his father about his plans, who was in New 
York. 

John wrote to his father, who was in New York, about 
his plans. 

{Mary talked to her mother. 
She talked about an art gallery she had seen. 
This art gallery was in Boston. 

Mary talked to her mother about an art gallery she had 
seen in Boston. 

Mary talked about an art gallery she had seen in Boston 
to her mother. 

„ J He asked his mother why she had refused him. 
| He was indignant at her decision. 

He asked his mother why she had refused him indignant 
at her decision. 

Indignant at her decision, he asked his mother why she 
had refused him. 

Exercise 83. — Written 

Examine the following groups of sentences. Select 
from each group the one that expresses the most 
important thought. Relate the other sentences of 
each group as subordinate elements (word, phrase, or 
clause) to the principal one. What idea does each 
subordinate element express? When the new sen- 
tence is complex, name the word used to relate the 
subordinate clause to the principal one. Which makes 
the truer and better-built expression of the thought — 
the group of sentences or the single sentences? Why? 



THE RHETORIC OF THE SENTENCE 169 

1. The cavern was reached by stone steps. These steps 
were rough boulders placed to make a stairway. The sides 
of the cavern were covered with dampness and soft clinging 
moss. . 

2. Each step was worn. The worn places were where the 
feet of thousands had, year after year, pressed in passing to 
the cavern below. 

3. The cave at its entrance was very low and narrow. It 
widened suddenly. One could easily stand erect and walk 
about. 

4. Lights had been placed here and there. The workmen 
and visitors could make their way around and see the won- 
ders of this underground world. 

5. The floor of the cavern was rough and deeply fur- 
rowed. This wearing had been done by the water that 
dripped from the roof and sides and by streams that flowed 
through the cave. 

The following words and expressions are connec- 
tives, which help to bridge over and relate expres- 
sions, and so make sentences unified and coherent. 
Write sentences illustrating their correct usage. 

accordingly 
for that reason 
now and then 
not only — but also 

Note: The teacher should add to this list and should keep 
calling attention to the value of connectives, adverbs, and 
phrases, in giving smoothness and coherence to a sentence. 

3. Emphasis. — In our exchange of ideas, there 
are always some thoughts which are of more 
importance than others. In order to show their 
distinction, we must give them emphasis. In 



ikewise 


* however 


lence 


although 


:oo 


moreover 


:herefore 


notwithstanding 



170 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

speaking, the expression of the face, the tone of the 
voice assist us in making the more important ideas 
stand forth vividly. In writing, by the employ- 
ment of various means, we can make use of the 
principle of emphasis. 

Take the sentence, Life is short That serves 
well for mere assertion. Let us assume that you 
wish to call attention to the fact in a way that will 
give slightly more emphasis. Is not life short? 
which is the question form, will serve this purpose. 
Suppose that, in an appeal, you want to present 
this thought so that the reader will be forced to 
pause upon it. For emphasis, sustained by strong 
feeling, the exclamatory sentence is invaluable. 
How short is life! is vivid and compelling. 

We shall find also that there are three kinds of 
sentences, the skillful use of which will help us 
in securing emphasis. 

I. A loose sentence is one in which a thought gram-, 
matically complete is expressed before the end of the 
sentence is reached. The term loose is not one of 
reproach, but merely a term used to denote the 
structural character. 

Example: Hanover is a small New Hampshire 
village famous as the seat of Dartmouth College. 

II. A periodic sentence is one in which the thought 
is incomplete until the end is reached. Until you 
finish the sentence, the thought hangs suspended. It is 
like a picture puzzle; every piece must be fitted in before 



THE RHETORIC OF THE SENTENCE 171 

the picture is complete; the final piece to be fitted 
is needed to secure the complete effect. Because of 
this element of suspense, a periodic sentence is more 
emphatic than a loose sentence. 

Examples of effective periodic sentences: 

To write naturally is the same thing in regard to com- 
mon conversation as to read naturally is in regard to com- 
mon speech. 

William Hazlitt 

To be honest, to be kind — to earn a little and to spend 
a little less, to make upon the whole a family happier for 
his presence, to renounce when that shall be necessary and 
not to be embittered, to keep a few friends, but these with- 
out capitulation — above all, on the same grim conditions, 
to keep friends with himself — here is a task for all that 
a man has of fortitude and delicacy. 

Robert Louis Stevenson: A Christmas Sermon. 

Exercise 84. — Oral 

Point out just what is gained in emphasis in the 
following periodic sentences. Cast them in loose 
form and judge of their effect. 

1. It is only when our rights are invaded or seriously 

menaced that we resent injuries or make preparation for 

our defense. 

James Monroe 

2. At the moment when the last trace of foreign con- 
quest passed away, when the descendants of those who won 
and those who lost at Senlac blended for ever into an Eng- 
lish people, England saw in her ruler no stranger but an 

Englishman. 

John Richard Green 



172 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

3. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm 
reliance on the Protection of Divine Providence, we mutually 
pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes, and our sacred 
Honor. 

Declaration of Independence 

4. When we consider the magnitude of the prize we 
contended for, the doubtful nature of the contest, and the 
favorable manner in which it has terminated, we shall find 
the greatest possible reason for gratitude and rejoicing. 

George Washington 

5. If some of our politicians pursued the course of tell- 
ing the truth at all hazards to the people about themselves, 
and about those who wish to mislead them, they might not 

lose so many votes as they fear. 

William Howard Taft 

6. When men engage in the pursuits of peace in the 

same spirit of self-sacrifice and of conscious service of the 

community with which the common soldier engages in war, 

then shall there be wars no more. 

Woodrow Wilson 

III. A balanced sentence is one in which the 
grammatical structure of one part corresponds to the 
grammatical structure of another. Because of the 
arrangement itself, because of the effectiveness 
secured in bringing two similar, or two contrasting 
ideas together, the balanced structure lends emphasis. 

Exercise 85. — Oral and Written 

1. Study the different kinds of effect produced by 
balanced structure in each of the following sentences. 
Note how the structure helps to emphasize the idea. 
Note in case of a series of such constructions, where 
the most vital ideas are placed. Which sentences 



THE RHETORIC OF THE SENTENCE 173 

seem to gain momentum as they move? Note a 
frequent connection between the balanced and the 
compound sentence. 

1. The men enter; they sit down. (Parallel construc- 
tion; that is, the grammatical construction of the clauses is 
similar.) 

2. At daybreak, activity is renewed ; at nightfall, it 
ceases. (Antithesis — contrast of ideas.) 

3. The children of Israel have forsaken thy covenant, 
thrown down thine altars, and slain thy prophets with the 
sword. (Climax.) 

I Kings 19 : 10 

4. We live in deeds, not years; in thoughts, not breaths; 

In feelings, not in figures on a dial. 

Philip J. Bailey 

5. To the memory of the man, first in war, first in peace, 

and first in the hearts of his countrymen. 

Henry Lee 

6. The mountains look on Marathon, 
And Marathon looks on the sea. 

Lord Byron 

2. Write a series of balanced sentences illustrating: 

(1) contrast 

(2) parallel structure 

(3) climax 

Not only through the structure of the sentences 
themselves, but also through various other means, 
emphasis may be secured. 

1. Various arrangements of the words within the 
sentences. — To put a word, phrase, or group of words 
out of its usual order, attracts attention. 



174 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

Examples: 

Swiftly descended the hammer. 

He spoke in a manner pleasing and emphatic. 

Back she comes. 

Now and then the club assembled. 

Him I will never forsake. 

Question: What word or words have been placed out of 
their usual order? Restore them to their usual order. 

Note : The inverted order, studied on page 48, is a com- 
mon and effective means of securing emphasis. 

2. The use of italics. — A line drawn under a 
word, a series of words, a sentence, etc., means to the 
printer that they are to be italicized. Therefore, 
when the word is printed, it will be in a type different 
from the type generally found on the page. This 
will attract attention. Remember that writing must 
appeal to the eye in much the same way that speaking 
must appeal to the ear. Your auditor hears em- 
phasis; your reader sees it. 

3. The use of punctuation marks. — These various 
marks, if used with care, can help to attract atten- 
tion. Remember that the strong marks are . ? ! — 
the next strongest : ; — the weakest , ( ) 

4. The use of a capital letter for a word not usually 
capitalized. — Such a means should be employed 
sparingly. But occasionally, if one wants to make a 
valuable idea word stand out, capitalization is a potent 
means. Compare the following sentences. What 
attracts your attention? Why? 

1. He was a man who believed in work. 

2. He was a man who believed in Work. 



THE RHETORIC OF THE SENTENCE 175 

5. The use of a direct instead of an indirect quota- 
tion. — In a direct quotation, you give the exact lan- 
guage of the speaker. In an indirect quotation, you 
give the general idea of his language. The former, 
being more precise, is the more emphatic. 

Examples: 

f Grant said, "Let us have peace." 

\ Grant said that we should have peace. 

He asked, "Is this report true?" 

He asked whether the report were true. 

Note how the quotation marks themselves are a 
means to emphasis. 

6. The use of specific rather than general words.— 
Specific words are definite and allow less range for 
misunderstanding than do general words. The word 
"biplane" is more significant than "airship" because 
it denotes a particular kind of airship; and "pansies" 
is more definite than "flowers." 

Exercise 86. — Review of Grammatical and Rhetorical 
Principles 

Condense, rearrange, or revise the following sen- 
tences or groups of sentences to make them gram- 
matical, clear, definite, forceful, unified, and coherent. 

1. I lost a valuable hand bag on Chestnut Street yester 
day about three o'clock in the afternoon. 

2. When coming to school yesterday, I left a plain brown 
leather hand bag with a five dollar bill, two car tickets, and 
a handkerchief in it on the car. It was the 12 : 45 p.m. car 
from Westboro, and I got off the car at the Central High 
School at ten minutes past one. 



176 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

3. The edition is the Pocket^Series of English Classics, 
and are 25 c 1 each. 

4. If the ring has been found, and returned to you, I 
would be pleased to have you write to me and I will imme- 
diately go after it. 

5. The books belong to the high school and, if there 
has been any such books found, I wish you would write to 
the above address and I shall call for them. 

6. I saw your advertisement in regard to a building 
site you have for sale in New Hampshire, in this month's 
"Outlook." I am looking for a place in New Hampshire 
to build a summer home, and the location you mention 
seems desirable. 

7. If found at your office, please notify the above ad- 
dress and I will call at once and identify it. 

8. I am seventeen years old and an advanced junior 
in the Commercial High School where we are fitted for 
office work. 

9. For any references you require, you might apply to 
Mr. Brown, our principal, or to any of my teachers. 

10. Referring to your account, which is long overdue, 
we are sorry to be forced to again request you to settle 
this matter. 

General Summary 
Unity makes the impression of the sentence 
single ; coherence makes the relation of the parts 
of the sentence unmistakable ; emphasis makes the 
presentation of the sentence vivid, convincing, and 
forceful. 



Chapter VIII 

THE RHETORIC OF THE PARAGRAPH 

1. Unity. — Just as we have found unity vital 
to the sentence (review Chap. VII, page 161), so 
we shall find it equally vital to the paragraph. 
In analyzing several selections in Chapter II, we 
saw that a paragraph contains (a) a central idea, 
(6) a special purpose, (c) a selection of only such 
points as help to meet that particular purpose, and 
(d) a careful arrangement of these points. Strict 
adherence to this plan in the writing of any para- 
graph produces a singleness of impression. This 
oneness of effect is called unity. 

Unity in a paragraph may be violated (a) by 
presenting more than one central idea; (h) by 
including minor ideas which do not contribute to 
the central idea. Suppose you are describing a 
porch. It would not be well to talk about the con- 
struction of the porch and about the chairs upon it, 
in the same paragraph. Such a description would 
have two central ideas and, therefore, would require 
two paragraphs. Again, suppose you are giving 
a description of the pattern of the chairs. You 
would hardly mention that they were bought at an 
auction sale for a trifling sum, a fact which, though 
interesting in itself, would not help to emphasize 

177 



178 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

the central idea. Indeed, to secure unity in a 
paragraph, one must be as careful about reject- 
ing irrelevant material as about including pertinent 
matter. 

Exercise 87. — Oral 

1. Select from the newspapers three paragraphs on 
important current events, each of which plainly is 
concerned with a single topic. Indicate the use of 
each sentence. If there is a topic sentence, name it. 

2. Which of the following paragraphs possess 
unity? Defend your answer by definite reasons. 
Which do not possess unity? Indicate definitely any 
part that violates unity. 

1. A buyer's interest in the quality of your goods can 
be developed to the extent only that he sees in their superior 
quality a means of increasing his own business profits cr 
prestige. A quality talk should always be from the stand- 
point of the buyer as a seller and in the identical terms that 
he would use in selling your goods to his own trade. If the 
buyer is a jobber, take him with you on an imaginary trip 
over his territory and talk to his trade about your goods. If 
he is a retailer, place yourself behind his counter in your 
imagination and talk to his patrons. In addition to convinc- 
ing a buyer of the superior excellence of your merchandise, 
you must also convince him that he can convince his trade. 

William Maxwell: Salesmanship. 

2. But whenever we turned to the south and east, how 
wonderful and how different was the view! There was no 
widespread and smiling landscape with gleams of silver 
scattered through it, and soft blue haze resting upon its 
fading verge, but a wild land of mountains, stern, rugged, 
tumultuous, rising one beyond another like the waves of 



THE RHETORIC OF THE PARAGRAPH 179 

a stormy ocean, — Ossa piled upon Pelion, — Mclntyre's 

sharp peak, and the ragged crest of the Gothics, and, above 

all, Marcy's dome-like head, raised just far enough above 

the others to assert his royal right as monarch of the 

iVdirondacks! 

Henry van Dyke: Little Rivers. 

3. Nathaniel Hawthorne knew how to write stories and 

he wrote a great many of them, both for children and grown 

people. While he was tall, broad, and strong, he was at the 

same time very gentle and modest in demeanor; he was 

also a man of rare learning. 

A School Reader 

4. Braddock's last moment was near. Orme, who, him- 
self severely wounded, was with him till his death, told 
Franklin that he was totally silent, all the first day, and 
at night said only, "Who would have thought it?" that all 
the next day he was again silent, till at last he muttered, 
"We shall better know how to deal with them another time," 
and died a few minutes after. He had nevertheless found 
breath to give orders at Gist's for the succor of the men who 
had dropped on the road. It is said, too, that in his last 
hours "he could not bear the sight of a red coat," but mur- 
mured praises of "the blues," or Virginians, and said he 
hoped to five to reward them. He died at about eight 
o'clock in the evening of Sunday, the thirteenth. Dunbar 
had begun his retreat that morning, and was then encamped 
near the Great Meadows. On Monday the dead commander 
was buried in the road ; and men, horses, and wagons passed 
over his grave, effacing every sign of it, lest the Indians 
should find and mutilate the body. 

Francis Parkman: Montcalm and Wolfe. 

3. Decide which of the specific subtopics should 
be included in a paragraph built around each pur- 
pose indicated below, and which should be omitted. 



180 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

Point out their best arrangement. Mention any 
further appropriate subtopics which might possibly 
be introduced. 

1. Purpose: to describe a typical summer day in the 
country. Cool morning; warm noon; hot afternoon; cool 
evening; bright sunshine; occasional thunder showers; 
pleasant scent of clover and ripening grain; brooks strug- 
gling for existence; a slight breeze throughout the day; 
scenes in the fields; cows in the pasture; the abandoned 
farmhouse. 

2. Purpose: to maintain that a knowledge of a modern 
foreign language is useful. Helps in broadening the vocabu- 
lary; assists one expecting to go abroad; trains one to think 
accurately; Frederick the Great knew French as thoroughly 
as German; helps one to realize the origin and value of 
idioms; commercial advantages; predominance of English 
throughout the world. 

Exercise 88. — Oral and Written 

Select the points for a paragraph on each of the 
following subjects, using the purpose here assigned 
to guide the selection. Discuss these topics to prove 
that they, if used, will in each case build a paragraph 
that is unified. 

1. An apple orchard in the spring. Purpose: to show 
the wealth and beauty of the flowering time. 

2. Salmon fishing in Alaska. Purpose: to show the char- 
acter and extent of the industry. 

3. The Woman Suffrage movement. Purpose: to show 
the methods followed by the militants of England. 

4. Winter on a country farm. Purpose: to show how a 
blizzard may isolate the dwellers for several days. 



THE RHETORIC OF THE PARAGRAPH 181 

Exercise 89. — Oral 
Preliminary work: 

A. Select the points necessary to develop each of 
the following topic sentences into a paragraph. 

B. Arrange the selected topics so that the para- 
graph, when it is developed, will be in harmony in 
thought and purpose with the topic sentence. 

C. Talk from your outline thus made. 

1. A sense of humor is invaluable to a salesman. 

2. A tactful beginning is necessary in a business 
interview. 

3. A man of business should always be particular about 
his personal appearance. 

4. A memory for names is of great value to a man of 
affairs. 

5. A customer may be attracted to a particular store 
as a result of many things. 

Class criticism : Direct the class criticism under 
the following heads : 

1. Delivery, carriage, and gestures of the speaker; 
voice, enunciation, pronunciation, etc. 

2. Ability to keep to the subject. 

3. Smoothness of composition. 

4. Matters of diction. 

Exercise 90. — Written 

Write paragraphs on three of the following sub- 
jects. Before writing, decide on a definite purpose; 
use care in selecting only those topics that develop 
this purpose; and arrange the chosen topics in the 
most effective order. 



182 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

1. An antique store. 

2. A peddler. 

3. An old mill. 

4. The parcel post. 

5. How to file business letters. 

6. How to make a sleeping porch. 

7. Advantages of the touch system of typewriting. 

8. The importance of being punctual in business. 

9. . The people before a newspaper office at election time. 
10. The reaction against the use of red ink in the keep- 
ing of accounts. 

Revision Questions for the Preceding Exercises 

Is there variety in the length of the sentences? 
Is there variety in the way the sentences begin; i.e., 
do some of your sentences open with a phrase, some 
with a clause, some with the subject, and others 
with the inverted order? Are simple, compound, 
and complex sentences employed to show the various 
kinds of thought relations? 

Are the sentences so selected and arranged as to 
develop the main purpose? Is there a oneness of im- 
pression created by the paragraph? 

Have matters of penmanship, spelling, and gram- 
mar received due attention? 

2. Coherence. — If coherence is necessary in the 
sentence (Review pages 166, 167) , it logically follows 
that it is important in the paragraph. In this 
unit of discourse we must secure coherence by 
being careful to arrange our sentences so as to 
make the meaning of the paragraph unmistak- 



THE RHETORIC OF THE PARAGRAPH 183 

ably clear. Coherence in a paragraph depends 
upon: 

Thought arrangement : Thoughts which are closely 
related are placed near one another. 

General use of connectives: They help to link 
sentences or parts of a sentence together, and, by doing 
so, give the effect of finish, of smoothness. (See 
page 169.) 

Exercise 91. — Oral 

1. Read the following paragraph, which may be 
briefly outlined as follows: 

I. The error 

II. The reason for the error 
III. The cost of the error 

In regard to Braddock's part of the campaign, there had 
been a serious error. If, instead of landing in Virginia and 
moving on Fort Duquesne by the long and circuitous route 
of Will's Creek, the two regiments had disembarked at 
Philadelphia and marched westward, the way would have 
been shortened, and would have lain through one of the 
richest and most populous districts on the continent, filled 
with supplies of every kind. In Virginia, on the other hand, 
and in the adjoining province of Maryland, wagons, horses, 
and forage were scarce. The enemies of the Administra- 
tion ascribed this blunder to the influence of the Quaker mer- 
chant, John Hanbury, whom the Duke of Newcastle had 
consulted as a person familiar with American affairs. Han- 
bury, who was a prominent stockholder in the Ohio Com- 
pany, and who traded largely in Virginia, saw it for his 
interest that the troops should pass that way; and is said 
to have brought the Duke to this opinion. A writer of the 



184 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

time thinks that if they had landed in Pennsylvania, forty 
thousand pounds would have been saved in money, and 
six weeks in time. 

Francis Parkman: Montcalm and Wolfe. 

What is the topic sentence? Prove that this para- 
graph has unity by showing how each sentence con- 
tributes in some way to the thought of the topic 
sentence. 

Select the sentences that bring out: the error; 
the reason; the cost. What in sentence 1 is elabo- 
rated in sentence 2? What kind of relation exists 
between the thoughts in sentences 2 and 3? What 
word in sentence 4 repeats the idea of the error de- 
veloped in sentences 1-3? What words of sentence 
4 are repeated in sentence 5 to bring about a closely- 
knit relation between these sentences? With what 
sentences does the cost idea connect? What words, 
if any, are used to show this relation? 

2. Show in detail how each sentence in the follow- 
ing selection is an outgrowth of its predecessor. 
Point out the means of linking the sentences together. 

During the whole of a dull, dark, and soundless day in 
the autumn of the year, when the clouds hung oppressively 
low in the heavens, I had been passing alone, on horseback, 
through a singularly dreary tract of country; and at length 
found myself, as the shades of evening drew on, within view 
of the melancholy House of Usher. I know not how it was, 
but with the first glimpse of the building a sense of insuffer- 
able gloom pervaded my spirit. I say insufferable; for 
the feeling was unrelieved by any of that half pleasurable, 
because poetic, sentiment with which the mind usually re- 
ceives even the sternest natural images of the desolate or 
terrible. I looked upon the scene before me — upon the 



THE RHETORIC OF THE PARAGRAPH 185 

mere house, and the simple landscape features of the domain, 
upon the bleak walls, upon the vacant eye-like windows, 
upon a few rank sedges, and upon a few white trunks of 
decayed trees — with an utter depression of soul, which I 
can compare to no earthly sensation more properly than to 
the after-dream of the reveler upon opium — the bitter 
lapse into everyday life — the hideous dropping of the veil. 
There was an iciness, a sinking, a sickening of the heart — 
an unredeemed dreariness of thought which no goading of 
the imagination could torture into aught of the sublime. 
What was it, I paused to think, — what was it that so un- 
nerved me in the contemplation of the House of Usher? It 
was a mystery all insoluble; nor could I grapple with the 
shadowy fancies that crowded upon me as I pondered. I 
was forced to fall back upon the unsatisfactory conclusion, 
that while beyond doubt there are combinations of very sim- 
ple natural objects which have the power of thus affecting us, 
still the analysis of this power lies among considerations 
beyond our depth. It was possible, I reflected, that a mere 
different arrangement of the particulars of the scene, — of 
the details of the picture, — would be sufficient to modify, 
or perhaps to annihilate, its capacity for sorrowful impres- 
sion; and acting upon this idea, I reined my horse to the 
precipitous brink of a black and lurid tarn that lay in un- 
ruffled lustre by the dwelling, and gazed down — but with 
a shudder more thrilling than before — upon the remodeled 
and inverted images of the gray sedge, and the ghastly 
tree stems, and the vacant and eye-like windows. 

Edgar Allan Poe: The Fall of the House of Usher, 

Exercise 92,— Oral 

Select any three of the following subjects for oral 
paragraphs. Decide upon the purpose for which each 
is to be developed. For each make an outline, or 



186 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

plan, to guide the development of the paragraph. 
In presenting your subject, aim to connect your 
ideas by words and expressions that will convey the 
exact relationship of thought to thought. The class 
criticism should have as its main purpose a discussion 
of the speaker's methods of securing smoothness. 

1. A windy day experience. 

2. A winter scene. 

3. An old beggar. 

4. Buying a rug at auction. 

5. The value of class organization in the high school. 

6. How to open an account at the bank. 

Exercise 93. — Written 
Write a paragraph upon one of the following subjects. 

1. The use of the telephone in ordering goods. 

2. How to construct an archery bow. 

3. The characteristics of a successful forester. 

4. The uncertainty of the fruit business. 

5. The popularity of moving pictures. 

Revision Questions 

Consult the revision questions under unity. 

Are the sentences closely knit together? 

Have I used the relation words that convey the 
exact relationship of thought to thought? 

As I read my composition aloud, does it sound 
smooth? 

3. Mass. — The two places of distinction in a 
sentence are the beginning and the end. In a 
paragraph, as the beginning and the end are the 



THE RHETORIC OF THE PARAGRAPH 187 

places that catch the eye and hold the attention, 
they are likewise the places of distinction. Mass is 
merely the principle of effective arrangement of 
the parts to secure emphasis. In some paragraphs, 
the important thought is at the beginning and is 
followed by particulars of development; in others, 
it is at the end and acts as a summary for the 
preceding particulars; in still others, it is at the 
beginning, is followed by particulars, and is 
expressed at the end in the form of a summary. 
Paragraphs, then, are poorly massed when the 
arrangement of material fails to place important 
thoughts in distinctive positions; they are well 
massed when the arrangement of material presents 
important thoughts in distinctive positions. 

Exercise 94. — Oral 

1. Examine any column of newspaper advertise- 
ments. In each, what is the most important fact, or 
facts? What is the position of the principal facts 
in the advertisements? 

2. Examine the following paragraphs. In each, 
what is the topic sentence? Where is it? Is this 
topic sentence the most vital one? If it is not, 
where in the paragraph is the most important sentence 
placed? Where are the details and the relatively 
unimportant matter placed? 

1. I close, then, with some suggestions as to what I con- 
sider the basis of a true business career — those which give 
reasonable assurance of a true business success. I place 
first among these integrity; because I believe that there is 



188 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

to-day a good deal of misapprehension on this point. There 
is now and then a case of brilliant rascality known among us; 
and we hear of this, and talk of it; we are inclined, some 
of us, to admire it ; but, after all, there are no cases, except 
very exceptional cases, wherein roguery has led to fortune. 
The rule is almost absolute, that our thrifty men have been 
exceptionally upright men. You will find few oases where 
the dishonest man has continuously flourished. There have 
been cases of his temporary, transient, meteoric success; 
but the rule is very uniform in its operation, that business 
success has been based on a broad platform of integrity. 
Horace Greeley: Success in Business. 

2. The management must keep in close personal touch 
with workmen in all departments. From foundry to shipping 
room this principle has been followed. Even with almost 
two thousand workmen in a manufacturing plant, it is sur- 
prising to find how easily and how pleasantly this personal 
relationship may be continued, once it is established. The 
employer may be somewhat amazed to find with what 
interest he absorbs knowledge of the affairs of the various 
employees and the eagerness he feels in seeing each man 
attain the success he desires. And this personal interest, 
which becomes wholly unselfish and one of the pleasures of 
business management, is the element which, more than any 
other one thing, perhaps, brings out loyalty and produces a 
unified organization. 

George H. Barbour: Personality in the Working Force. 

3. It is hard to find a satisfactory definition of advertis- 
ing. A picturesque way of putting it is to call it business 
imagination, an imagination that sees in a product possi- 
bilities which can be realized only by appealing to the public 
in new ways to create a desire where none existed before. 
It is a very broad word, an omnibus word conveying dif- 
ferent ideas to different people. 

Earnest Elmo Calkins: The Business of Advertising. 



THE RHETORIC OF THE PARAGRAPH 189 

3. Examine the arrangement, or mass, of any five 
paragraphs in this chapter. Defend your decision 
concerning them. 

Exercise 95. — Oral and Written 

Outline and give orally well-massed paragraphs on 
any two of the following subjects. Outline and write 
several paragraphs on any other three of them. 
Test them for unity, coherence, and mass. Apply the 
previous questions of revision. 

1. The influence of rainfall on the occupations of a people. 

2. The value of the typewriter in business correspondence. 

3. An experience with a burglar. 

4. An argument for an eight-hour working day. 

5. The value of out-of-door exercise for men engaged in 
clerical pursuits. 

6. The influence of mountains upon the industries and 
occupations of a people. 

7. A letter asking for the privilege of settling an account 
at a later time. 

8. The electrification of railroads. 

9. The advantages of the "charge system." 

10. An explanation of Marshall Field's doctrine: "The 
customer is always right." 



Chapter IX 

KINDS OF PARAGRAPHS 

1. Introductory. — We determine the nature of 
a paragraph by examining its chief purpose. If 
it aims to recount related events or acts which 
lead to some heightened point of interest, we call 
it a narrative paragraph. If it tries to portray or 
describe, we call it a descriptive paragraph. If it 
aims to explain and inform, we call it an exposi- 
tory paragraph. If it aims to convince or persuade, 
we call it an argumentative paragraph. 

Narrative and descriptive paragraphs appeal 
chiefly to the imaginative and emotional part of 
the mind; expository and argumentative para- 
graphs appeal chiefly to the intellectual and reason- 
ing part of the mind. This difference in appeal 
necessitates a difference in treatment in these 
kinds of paragraphs. 

2. The Narrative Paragraph. — A narrative 
paragraph presents one main incident. Such a 
paragraph may stand alone or it may be a part of 
a series. The incident is a combination of a num- 
ber of successive occurrences presented in the order 
in which they take place. The highest point of 
interest comes at the end of the paragraph. To 

190 



KINDS OF PARAGRAPHS 191 

it every occurrence introduced must bear a defi- 
nite relation. 

Exercise 96. — Oral 

Analyze the following paragraphs with these points 
as guides: (a) the single incident presented, (6) the 
occurrences used to develop this incident, (c) the 
order of their presentation, (d) the point of highest 
interest. Make evident that each occurrence is 
directly connected with this point of highest interest. 

1. The sheriff read the Emancipation Proclamation. He 
read it with no more ceremony than if he were giving notice 
of a forced sale of land, or a new city ordinance about negro 
passes, or any other everyday occurrence. He was sur- 
rounded by white men, who listened without interest or 
remark, and negroes, who were shocked and dismayed. They 
had been sure that the news of their freedom would come 
with the calling of trumpets, the firing of cannon, and the 
triumphant entry of a victorious army. Robert said they 
were sick and silent with disappointment, and vanished from 
the streets. I went into the kitchen to tell Harriet. She 
was leaning against the open door, looking intently eastward. 
Freedom was to come from the east, and she was always 
listening and watching for its approach. Her child, a girl 
about a year old, was sitting on the floor playing with some 
empty spools. I had always thought her indifferent to it. 
"Harriet," I said, and she turned her eyes upon me but did 
not speak, "you are free, Harriet! From this hour as free 
as I am. You can stay here or go; you can work or sleep; 
you are your own mistress, now and forever." She stepped 
forward as I spoke, and was looking at me intently. "Say 
dem words again, Miss Milly!" she cried, "say dem again." 
I repeated what I had told her, making the fact still more 
emphatic; and as I did so, her sullen black face brightened, 



192 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

she darted to her child, and throwing it shoulder high, 
shrieked hysterically, "Tamar, you'se free! You'se free, 
Tamar!" 

Amelia E. Barr: All the Days of My Life. 

2. Heinemann, the European publisher, once noticed 
two peddlers standing side by side, selling toy dolls. One 
of them had a queer, fat-faced doll, which he was pushing 
into the faces of the passers-by, giving it the name of a well- 
known woman reformer, then prominently before the pub- 
he. His dolls were selling rapidly, while the man beside 
him, who had a really more attractive doll, was doing com- 
paratively little business. A thought occurred to Heine- 
mann, and he tried an experiment. Calling the second 
peddler to one side, "My friend," he said, "do you want to 
know how to sell twice as many of these dolls as you are 
selling now? Hold them up in pairs, two together in each 
hand, and cry them as 'The Heavenly Twins.'" The toy 
vender somewhat grudgingly followed his advice. It was 
at a time when Sarah Grand's famous novel was at the 
height of its popularity, and the title of the book was on 
every one's tongue. Perhaps it was merely another case 
of good luck, but the Heavenly Twins dolls were an instan- 
taneous success, and within one hour the vender of the 
woman reformer dolls gave up the fight, acknowledged him- 
self beaten, and moved five blocks down the street to escape 
the ruinous competition. 

Lorin F. Deland: Imagination in Business. 

Exercise 97. — Written 

1. Read II Samuel 18, verses 19-33. 

Make a narrative paragraph of this incident by 
writing a single sentence on each of the following 
topics. Be sure that each sentence points toward 
the climax. 



KINDS OF PARAGRAPHS 193 

David sitting at the tower wall; the watchman on the 
tower; the approach of the first messenger, who stirs the 
king by his message ; the approach and tidings of the second 
messenger; the lament of David. 

2. Rewrite the preceding paragraph. Enrich it 
by additional sentences wherever in your judgment 
a topic allows elaboration. Throughout, keep in 
mind the ideas of unity, coherence, mass, and ap- 
proaching climax. 

3. Write a narrative paragraph on King Saul's visit 
to the Witch of Endor (I Samuel 28, verses 7-25), after 
having determined on the incident and its climax. 

4. Recall or imagine a visit to a fortune teller. 
Having your fortune told is the incident. Select the 
most exciting and mysterious moment of the experi- 
ence for the climax. Write a narrative paragraph on 
the subject, aiming for a variety of connectives in 
its development. 

5. Use each of the following sentences as the cli- 
max, or highest point of a narrative paragraph. Be 
sure to decide upon an incident that could produce 
each climax and give an orderly arrangement of the 
occurrences leading to this highest point of interest. 
Write the paragraph. 

1. The machine hung for one horrible instant at the edge 
of the cliff — and then shot madly over it. 

2. The child saw where her doll had fallen; without a 
single thought of danger, she rushed after it into the shooting 
flames. 

3. Not until then did the full truth dawn upon the pas- 
sengers — the ship was foundering. 

4. Grimy, perspiring, spattered with mud, hardly looking 
the hero, he was the hero; every one was shouting his name. 



194 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

Exercise 98.— Oral 

With five minutes for preparation give orally a 
narrative paragraph on any of the preceding inci- 
dents. Let the other members of the class determine 
the value of the use of the material in relation to the 
highest point of the paragraph. The delivery should 
be criticized with regard to modulations of the voice, 
intensity of interest, smoothness, variety in sentence 
length, and in sentence openings. 

Exercise 99. — Written 

1. Develop any two of the following assignments 
into narrative paragraphs that might be incorporated 
in letters from an agent to his house. 

1. An experience with an irate customer. 

2. An attempt to interview a man difficult of access. 

3. A failure to find a man at a given place and at a 
given time. 

4. An experience with a cook recommended by an em- 
ployment agency. 

5. A mishap due to the late arrival of baggage containing 
samples. 

2. Imagine the total experience of which any one 
of the foregoing is an incident. Write the complete 
letter. (See Chapter XI for the letter form.) 

3. Write a series of narrative paragraphs on one 
or more of the following subjects. Remember that 
in this exercise the paragraphs must ascend in interest 
until the climax of the story is reached. (Read in 
preparation the model narrative and narrative 
outline in Appendix B.) Plan the narrative. In 



KINDS OF PARAGRAPHS 195 

revising, apply the test questions accompanying this 
exercise. 

1. An experience at the circus. 

2. An accident at the automobile races. 

3. A minute late. 

4. What I really got at the auction. 

5. My first night with our new dog. 

6. An experience which resulted from the wrong address- 
ing of a letter. 

7. Learning to run an automobile. 

8. The outcome of an interview with the proprietor of a 
large 5 and 10 cent store in which you have been trying to 
install a number of cash registers. 

9. You are director of a mining camp. Write a letter to 
the superintendent, who happens to be away on business, 
giving the cause, the happening, and the outcome of a feud 
among a gang of men under your charge. 

10. You were on a street car at the time of an accident 
and are asked by the vice president of the road to state 
your version of the affair. Give the details. 

Questions for the student to ask himself after writ- 
ing a simple narrative. (The student should be able 
to answer each question in the affirmative, if his work 
is acceptable.) 

I. Purpose: 

A. Have I a distinct purpose? 

B. Does every event in my narrative aid my 

purpose? 

11. Introduction: 

A. Do I need one? (Remember an introduction is 

not always necessary.) 

B. Does it bring out only those ideas which are 

necessary for an understanding of the plot? 



196 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

III. Events leading to the climax: 

A. Do they move smoothly toward the climax? 

B. Do they increase in interest from the opening 

of the story until the climax is reached? 

C. Does each event look forward to the climax? 

IV. The climax: 

A. Is it a natural outgrowth of what has come 

before? 

B. Is it placed well toward the end of the story? 

C. Does it reflect the purpose of the story? 

V. Events after the climax: 

A. Are they necessary? (Remember they are not 

always needed.) 

B. Are they briefly told? 

VI. Setting: 

A. Is it brief? 

B. Is it vivid? 

C. Is it consistent with the purpose-idea? 

D. Does it have a vital part in the development of 

character or action? 

VII. Characters: 

Do they act and speak as they would in actual 
life? 

VIII. Revision: 

A. Have I read my story aloud? 

B. Have I attended to matters of spelling, pen- 

manship, punctuation, and margins? 

3. The Newspaper Narrative Paragraph. — A 
newspaper writer employs a radically different plan 
in constructing a narrative paragraph. Instead 



KINDS OF PARAGRAPHS 197 

of trying to intensify the interest as he progresses 
in his story, he aims to state in a striking manner 
the most exciting event or events first. From 
these he works toward the results, the causes, and 
the other details that must be given in order to 
make the climax clear. 

Exercise 100. — Oral and Written 

1. Read the following news story. 

AEROPLANES CRASH 

Son of Theophile Delcasse Has His Leg 
Fractured. 

Paris, Nov. 1U. — An aeroplane collision in midair 
yesterday imperiled the lives of the son of Theophile 
Delcasse, French minister of marine, and two avia- 
tors at Villacoublay, near Paris. Young Delcasse 
was making a flight as a passenger on board a mono- 
plane piloted by Georges Collardeau, when another 
machine ascended and the two aeroplanes started 
maneuvering around the aerodrome. The false 
movement of a lever caused them to come violently 
into collision, and the two wrecked machines inter- 
locked and crashed to earth. One of young Del- 
casse's legs was fractured and Collardeau was badly 
bruised, while the pilot of the other aeroplane was 
very seriously injured, probably fatally. The col- 
lision occurred at a low altitude. 

2. Outline the paragraph. Account for the order 
of events. What advantage does this plan have for 
the writer's purpose? What is the use of the head- 
lines? What relation do they bear to the climax? 

3. Select from your daily newspaper a one-para- 
graph narrative article. Reproduce this incident in 
writing, first in literary style ; then in newspaper 
style. 



198 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

4. Plan and write for any one of the following sets 
of headlines a suitable news paragraph. 

1. 20 DAYS AT STORM'S MERCY 

Schooner Hight, with Exhausted Crew, Towed 
into New London. 

New London, Conn., Jan. 9. — 



2. ICE RREAKS, TWO DROWN 

Two Others of Middletown Skating Party 
Reach Shore Safely. 

Middletown, N. Y., Jan. 4. — 

3. $25,000 NECKLACE IN SNOW 

Baroness de Forest Recovers it After 
Giving Up Hope of Regaining It. 

Geneva, Jan. 9. — 

4 NEAR DEATH IN SOUTH RAY 

Hunting Party Caught in Friday's Gale 
Forced by the Wind to Anchor. 

Babylon, L. I., Sept. 8. — 

5. Change the narrative paragraphs dealing with 
the freeing of the slave and the doll peddler into news 
paragraphs. (See pages 191, 192.) 

6. Read the following newspaper paragraph. What 
is the climax? Where is it placed? What facts are 
given bearing on the climax? What is the purpose of 
the headlines? From what part of the paragraph are 
they taken? 



KINDS OF PARAGRAPHS 199 

A VENICE-TRIESTE FLIGHT 
. SEA CROSSED AND RECROSSED 

Georges Chemet, Frenchman, and Maj. 

Ginnochio, Italian, Received 

Enthusiastically. 

A remarkable flight in a hydroaeroplane across 
the Adriatic sea from Venice to Trieste and back 
again to Venice was carried out yesterday by the 
French aviator, Georges Chemet. He took with him 
as a passenger Maj. Ginnochio of the Italian army. 
The total distance of the flight was 256 kilometers 
(about 159 miles). On the return voyage from the 
Austrian to the Italian coast, trouble with the 
motor of the hydroaeroplane obliged Chemet to 
descend to the surface of the sea when 25 miles away 
from the shore. The daring aviator succeeded in re- 
pairing his motor while floating on a slightly rough 
sea. He then reascended and terminated the trip to 
Venice at a speed of 75 miles an hour. Chemet 
and his companion were enthusiastically greeted 
when they descended at Venice. 

7. Write narrative news paragraphs upon the fol- 
lowing subjects. 

Preliminary Questions: 

A. What is the climax? 

B. What facts must I give showing the cause and 
results of the event expressed in the climax? 

C. What headlines will best suit my climax? 

1. A barn is struck by Kghtning. 

2. A wild cat surprises a party of campers. 

3. The old Academy of Music is to be sold at auction. 

4. A ship bearing a cargo of molasses is wrecked off the 
coast of Fire Island. 

5. The Old Gold Automobile Company has become 
bankrupt. 



200 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

4. The Descriptive Paragraph. — A descriptive 
paragraph presents one definite impression of a 
person, thing, or place. This unified impression 
results from the writer's singleness of purpose. He 
chooses only such particular and general qualities 
as contribute to the one main impression. All 
other qualities, though of interest in themselves 
or in the development of a different effect, are 
rejected. In the arrangement of his material, the 
writer must always bear in mind the emphasis 
desired and the positions for securing such empha- 
sis in the paragraph. Any change in the point of 
view must be definitely stated. 

Exercise 101. — Oral and Written 

1. Read the following descriptive paragraphs. 
What is the writer's purpose in each? Make a list 
of the topics selected to develop this purpose. De- 
termine upon the method of arrangement of material 
(that is, whether it moves from the general to the 
particular, or from the particular to the general, or 
merely gives particulars, etc.). Discuss the values 
of the various methods of arrangement and of the 
choice of words. 

Re-read pages 123-126. 

1. It happened to be market day in Perugia. The 
great square, therefore, presented a far more vivacious 
spectacle than would have been witnessed in it at any other 
time of the week, though not so lively as to overcome the 
gray solemnity of the architectural portion of the scene. In 
the shadow of the cathedral and other old Gothic structures 
— seeking shelter from the sunshine that fell across the rest 
of the piazza — was a crowd of people engaged as buyers or 



KINDS OF PARAGRAPHS 201 

sellers in the petty traffic of a country-fair. Dealers had 
erected booths and stalls on the pavement, and overspread 
them with scanty awnings, beneath which they stood, vocif- 
erously crying their merchandise; such as shoes, hats and 
caps, yarn stockings, cheap jewelry and cutlery, books, 
chiefly little volumes of a religious character, and a few 
French novels; toys, tin-ware, old iron, cloth, rosaries of 
beads, crucifixes, cakes, biscuits, sugarplums, and innumer- 
able little odds and ends, which we see no object in adver- 
tising. Baskets of grapes, figs, and pears stood on the 
ground. Donkeys bearing panniers stuffed out with kitchen 
vegetables, and requiring an ample roadway, roughly shoul- 
dered aside the throng. Crowded as the square was, a 
juggler found room to spread out a white cloth upon the 
pavement, and cover it with cups, balls, cards — the whole 
material of his magic, in short — wherewith he proceeded 
to work miracles under the noonday sun. An organ-grinder 
at one point, and a clarion and a flute at another, accom- 
plished what they could toward filling the wide space with 
tuneful noise. Their small uproar, however, was nearly 
drowned by the multitudinous voices of the people, bargain- 
ing, quarreling, laughing, and babbling copiously at ran- 
dom; for the briskness of the mountain atmosphere, or 
some other cause, made everybody so loquacious that more 
words were wasted in Perugia on this one market day, than 
the noisiest piazza of Rome could utter in a month. 

Nathaniel Hawthorne: The Marble Faun. 

2. Here is the throbbing pulse of the city bared and 
visible. Night is over; with rapidly increasing frequency 
the flashing drops of light indicate that the activity of day 
has begun. Every action must be expressed in words, and, 
bared and concentrated, that word-current of the city rises 
like a gathering wave. From ten in the morning to five 
minutes after, the tide is at the flood. The flicker of lights 



202 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

is dazzling; the girls' hands race dizzily behind their flash- 
ing summons. Business is at its height. But here on another 
row of panels the occasional flash of lights offers a curious 
contrast: this is a panel for a part of the residence district; 
from seven to eight in the evening its lights will glow with 
activity. Then business is over and the downtown panels 
will be darkened. Here is a visual shifting of scene and 
interest. Work over, the social engagements are made, and 
business is forgotten. There is a friendly gossiping along 
the wires. 

Night has come, and a dozen girls watch the long, de- 
serted boards. Like the occasional glimmer of a cab lamp 
late upon the street, the signals, one by one, flash and are 
gone. The world is fast asleep. Far down at the end of 
the panel a signal brightens. "Number please?" — -'Police!" 
It was a woman's voice. From the card index "Central" 
picks out the street address which corresponds to the num- 
ber, and the nearest station is advised of the call. Had the 
woman no time to finish her message? There is another 
light burning on the panel. Already she is forgotten and 
the slim hands are making another connection. Police or 
doctor, — the night calls are laden with portent. 

Joseph Husband: Telephone. 

3. Commerce, travel, traffic, seem to proclaim them- 
selves from every craft that floats in the harbor and from all 
the docks along the shores. The impulsive ferryboats, 
carrying their thousands of commuters to or from New 
Jersey, keep darting back and forth from their slips, im- 
pudently challenging our great finer with short, hoarse 
whistles that indicate they mean to cross our bows. They 
have to "make a train" and are not to be stopped. Long 
scows loaded with freight-cars are being shoved and pushed 
around the Battery and up to Mott Haven, where the cars 
are transferred to New England railway tracks; pile drivers 



KINDS OF PARAGRAPHS 203 

in tow go staggering up the river to the new docks in proc- 
ess of building; great strings of canal boats, half a dozen 
long and three abreast, are trailing away toward Raritan 
Bay; coal barges in squadrons keep filing past. Everything 
is moving in the interest of commerce. 

John C. Van Dyke: The New New York. 

2. Write a descriptive paragraph about a farm. 
Before writing, make an outline from the following 
suggestions. 

Purpose: to show its prosperous condition. Near a 
river; diversified surface; house on a knoll; barn large, 
roomy, clean; cattle, sheep, and horses in the pastures; 
broad fields of grain; general impression of the whole. 

3. Make a list of the essential characteristics needed 
for a descriptive paragraph on any three of the follow- 
ing subjects. Decide beforehand on the best arrange- 
ment of the selected qualities. 

1. Our Commencement. Purpose: to picture the beauty, 
the happiness, and the dignity of the scene. 

2. The Rag Man. Purpose : to picture him at the close 
of his day's work. 

3. The Preparation for the Race. Purpose : to show the 
tense excitement of the various contestants. 

4. An Old Engine. Purpose : to show why, though it is 
no longer in service, the old railroadmen call it "the queen 
of the roundhouse." 

5. A Raw, Foggy Day. Purpose: to show how it seems 
to affect every one and give a strange vague impression to 
everything. 

4. Having decided upon a purpose, the details to 
develop the purpose, and the arrangement of them, 



204 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

develop each of the following sentences into a de- 
scriptive paragraph. 

1. The old horse looked as if it belonged to no one. 

2. The auction room was crowded with a curious assembly 
of people. 

3. Towards daybreak, the sleet storm increased in fury. 

4. He was a tramp dog, but an unusual tramp dog, 
understand! 

5. The East River presents an inspiring sight when 
viewed from Brooklyn Bridge. 

5. Write a series of descriptive paragraphs on one 
of the following subjects. Decide upon the purpose 
of each paragraph, its relation to its neighbors, and 
the selection and arrangement of the material. (See 
model descriptive outline, Appendix B.) Revise 
your composition according to the subjoined revision 
questions. 

1. A country store. 

2. A barber shop, Saturday night. 

3. Impressions of an automobile. 

4. A scene at the station. 

5. Your typewriting room during a practice period. 

6. Your student bank. 

7. A model business office. 

8. A cashier's desk in a large department store. 

9. The emptying of a factory at night. 
10. A business street at noon and at night. 
Questions for the student to ask himself after writing 

a description. 
I. Purpose and Plan: 

A. Have I singleness of aim? What is my purpose? 

B. Have I arranged my topics to bring out my pur- 

pose-idea? 



KINDS OF PARAGRAPHS 205 

C. Have I arranged my material according to that 
method which best subserves my purpose; i.e., 
have I followed one of the following plans? 

1. General topics and then particulars 

2. Particulars and then general summary or state- 

ment of impression 

3. General topics, particulars, and then general 

impression 

4. General topics only 

5. Particulars only 

II. Development of Purpose and Plan: 

A. Have I read my composition aloud? 

B. Are the points which are to be brought out, 

closely connected? 

C. Is a unified, vivid impression created by a skillful 

choice of words? 

D. Have I indicated every change in my point of 

view; i.e., have I made it clear to my reader 
whenever I have changed my view of the object, 
person, or scene I am describing? 

III. Form: 

A. Is this my best penmanship? 

B. Have I looked up the spelling of every doubtful 

word? 

C. Have I kept my margins, and have I indorsed my 

paper? 

5. The Expository Paragraph. — In the exposi- 
tory paragraph the writer's main purpose is to 
explain a fact or an idea. Clearness, above all, 
must be secured. More than ever the writer must 
exercise care in the selection and arrangement of 
his material. He must make sure that the purpose 



206 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

of each paragraph is not too broad in its scope and 
that every detail introduced brings out that pur- 
pose in a clear, exact manner. He must be very 
particular in the choice of his words, for accuracy 
means everything in the giving of information. 
The sentences must be so arranged that their close 
connection and logical development shall be un- 
mistakable. 

Great care must be used to make sure that the 
subject of an expository paragraph is sufficiently 
limited to secure adequate treatment. If the sub- 
ject is too broad, it will fail to meet the purpose 
of the paragraph with clearness and precision. Do 
not try to pour a gallon into a quart bottle. 

Exercise 102. — Oral 

State the purpose of each of the following para- 
graphs. Mention its subject. What sentence ex- 
presses the subject and in what part of the paragraph 
is it stated? What relation has the rest of the para- 
graph to this fact? 

1. Now, I have gone as far as I can without dividing a 
sale into its four severable parts. This division is imperative 
to an intelligent consideration of the subject of salesman- 
ship. It is even more important to the actual making of a 
sale. The projection of your mind to a successful meeting 
with another human mind requires the accomplishment of 
four distinct steps with your auditor. First, you must gain 
his undivided attention. Second, you must arouse his defi- 
nite interest. Third, you must create an unqualified belief 
in and accord with your statements. Fourth, when you 



KINDS OF PARAGRAPH^ 207 

have removed all quibbles and doubts from his mind, you 

must replace them instantly with an impelling resolution 

to do the thing you ask. 

William Maxwell: Salesmanship. 

2. But Grant differed from all the conquerors of history 
in this: the moment that Grant had the trembling Con- 
federacy at his feet, he was no longer the soldier. He be- 
came transformed into the patriot and the statesman. He 
knew that those men who had surrendered had to be citi- 
zens, and that this was to be our common country. He knew 
that no Republic could govern conquered provinces. He 
said, "Go back to your homes, cultivate crops, create manu- 
factures, develop commerce, help us to make this the great- 
est nation on earth." 

Chauncey M. Depew: The Legacy of Grant. 

3. There were many points of similarity in the lives and 
fortunes of these great men. They belonged to the same 
profession, and had pursued the study and its practice, for 
unequal lengths of time, indeed, but with diligence and 
effect. Both were learned and able lawyers. They were 
natives and inhabitants, respectively, of those two of the 
Colonies which at the Revolution were the largest and most 
powerful, and which naturally had a lead in the political 
affairs of the times. When the Colonies became in some 
degree united, by the assembling of a general Congress, 
they were brought to act together in its deliberations, not 
indeed at the same time, but both at early periods. Each 
had already manifested his attachment to the cause of the 
country, as well as his ability to maintain it, by printed 
addresses, public speeches, extensive correspondence, and 
whatever other mode could be adopted for the purpose of 
exposing the encroachments of the British Parliament, and 
animating the people to a manly resistance. Both were not 
only decided, but early, friends of Independence. While 



208 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

others yet doubted, they were resolved; where others hesi- 
tated, they pressed forward. They were both members of 
the committee for preparing the Declaration of Independence, 
and they constituted the sub-committee appointed by the 
other members to make the draft. They left their seats in 
Congress, being called to other public employments, at 
periods not remote from each other, although one of them 
returned to it afterwards for a short time. Neither of them 
was of the assembly of great men which formed the present 
constitution, and neither was at any time a member of 
Congress under its provisions. Both have been public 
ministers abroad, both Vice Presidents, and both Presidents 
of the United States. These Coincidences are now singularly 
crowned and completed. They have died together; and 
they died on the anniversary of liberty. 

Daniel Webster: Adams and Jefferson. 

4. In comparing the late eruption (Mt. Vesuvius) with 
that of Mont Pelee, one is struck by several noteworthy 
differences. In the first place, the West Indian volcano 
threw out laterally at least three explosive blasts, which 
went to a distance of more than four miles, and tore to 
pieces everything in their way. Vesuvius did not explode 
laterally at any time. In the second place, the summit of 
Pelee, during its period of activity, was a center of profound 
meteorological disturbances and there came down from it, 
at short intervals, floods of water, fifteen or twenty feet in 
depth, which seemed to originate in cloud bursts, and which, 
on the lower slopes of the mountain, became destructive 
torrents of liquid mud. On Vesuvius there were no heavy 
rains during the eruption and there has been little aqueous 
precipitation since. In the third place, Pelee threw out no 
lava except half-solid incandescent blocks, while from fis- 
sures in the southern side of Vesuvius molten rocks flowed 
to a distance of two or three miles. 

George Kennan: The Outlook. 



KINDS OF PARAGRAPHS 209 

5. There is no branch of science so closely associated 
with our immediate wants and enjoyments as that of Geol- 
ogy. In our daily walks we tread with heedless step upon 
the apparently • uninteresting objects of which it treats; 
but could we rightly interrogate the rounded pebble in our 
path, it would tell us of the convulsions by which it was 
wrenched from its parent rock, and of the floods by which 
it was abraded and placed beneath our feet. In our visits 
to the picturesque and the sublime, we come into still closer 
proximity to geological truths. In the precipices which 
defend our rock-girt Isle and flank our mountain glens, 
and in the shapeless fragments at their base which the lichen 
colors and round which the ivy twines, we see the remnants 
of uplifted and shattered strata which once peacefully re- 
posed at the bottom of the ocean. Nor does the rugged or 
the rounded boulder give a less articulate response from its 
lair of sand or its grave of clay. Floated by ice from some 
alpine summit, or hurried along in torrents of mud or of 
water, it may have traversed a quarter of the globe, amid the 
crash of falling forests and the death shrieks of the animals 
which they lodged. The mountain range, too, with its 
catacombs beneath, along which the earthquake transmits 
its terrific sounds, reminds us of the mighty powers by which 
it was upheaved, while the lofty peak with its cap of ice or 
its nostrils of fire reveals the tremendous agencies which 
have been struggling beneath us. 

Sir David Brewster: More Worlds Than One. 

Exercise 103. — Oral and Written 

1. After having made outlines for elaborating the 
following thoughts, write the paragraphs. Be sure 
that (a) each sentence of the paragraph deals with 
the paragraph subject only, (6) a close relation exists 
among the sentences, (c) their arrangement is based 



210 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

upon logical development, and (d) the whole gives 
an effect of clearness. 

1. The life of a traveling salesman is filled with many 
hardships. 

Expand or explain this thought by giving examples 
illustrating these hardships. 

2. In several ways, the life of a drummer is like that of 
an actor. 

Expand and explain by pointing out in what respects 
the lives of the two seem similar. 

3. A promissory note is . 

Complete the thought by means of definition. 

4. What a business man engaged in manufacturing else- 
where should see in our town. 

Indicate the points of interest in the order of im- 
portance. 

2. The foregoing exercises have illustrated some of 
the various means of accomplishing exposition, such 
as the use of examples; definition; comparison or 
contrast; repeating the basic thought in simpler or 
clearer language ; giving ^specific information or di- 
rections; enumeration. Decide which of these means 
is used in each paragraph under the former oral 
exercises. 

3. What means for developing the following sub- 
jects seem to you most appropriate? 

1. Basketball and football are alike in several respects. 

2. There are many ways in which a boy can be helpful 
to his mother around the house. 

3. Good spelling is especially important in business life. 

4. Penmanship is still of importance in the business 
world. 



KINDS OF PARAGRAPHS 211 

5. The telephone is a time-saving invention. 

6. Climate depends on several conditions. 

7. A stethoscope. 

8. How to pack china for shipping. 

9. The parts of a baseball diamond. 

10. The differences between telephoning and telegraphing. 

4. With purpose, selection, and arrangement in 
mind, write at least three paragraphs, each based on 
one of the foregoing suggestions. 

Exercise 104. — Oral and Written 

Paragraphs in a series. — Prepare written outlines 
for oral expositions on two of the following topics. 
Develop these plans into oral compositions. When 
you have thus objectified your thought, write these 
compositions. (See model expository outline, Ap- 
pendix B.) Revise your compositions according to 
the subjoined revision questions. 

1. How to fit a schoolroom with electric bells. 

2. How the game of baseball is played. 

3. The duties of a bank cashier. 

4. Filling mail-orders in a large business. 

5. Causes of panics. 

6. The work of a buyer of millinery in a department 
store. 

7. The effect of the automobile upon the livery business. 

8. The commercial advantages of acetylene gas. 

9. The duties of a floorwalker. 

10. The work of the auditing department in a large 
retail store. 

11. A contrast between tropical and temperate countries 
in respect to produce. 



212 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

12. Advantages in business of the automobile-truck over 
the horse-drawn vehicle. 

13. The great political parties in the United States to-day. 

14. The purpose and value of clearance sales. 

15. The advantages of the C. 0. D. principle in business. 

16. Ignition devices in automobile construction. 

17. Commercial patterns in dressmaking. 

18. Method of cutting and making undergarments. 

19. The evolution of hats. 

20. The method of making a hat frame. 

21. Exercise and its relation to digestion. 

22. Worry and its effect upon digestion. 

23. The importance of system in business. 

24. The analysis of solutions for metals. 

25. The importance of correct speech in business trans- 
actions. 

26. The uses of the dictograph in business offices. 

27. The principle and the uses of the mimeograph. 

28. The need of enthusiasm in business. 

29. The uses of the protectograph. 

30. Pittsburg and the iron industry. 

31. Methods of conducting business in medieval markets. 

32. Inventors and inventions of the Renaissance. 

33. Gutenberg and his press. 

34. Early block printing. 

35. Color printing in magazines to-day. 

36. Reasons for the financial success of the Erie Canal. 

37. The effect of the Civil War upon the cotton industry 
in England. 

38. Alexander Hamilton, the organizer of our national 
finances. 

39. The effect of the automobile upon the making of 
good roads. 

40. The business advantages to retail merchants whose 
stores are located on automobile highways. 



KINDS OF PARAGRAPHS 213 

Questions for the student to ask himself after writ- 
ing an exposition. 
I. Purpose: 

A. What is my purpose? 

B. Have I clearly stated it in my outline? 

C. Have I kept to it; i.e., have I selected material 

with my purpose constantly in mind? 

D. Have I arranged my material so as to bring out my 

purpose in the most effective manner possible? 

II. Plan and technical development of plan: 

A. Have I need of an introduction? If so, does it 

contain a few general points necessary to the un- 
derstanding of my exposition? Does it lead 
naturally to the discussion? 

B. Have I paragraphed according to my plan? Are 

my paragraphs closely related? unified? Is the 
topic sentence of each paragraph placed so as 
to guide the reader in an understanding of my 
purpose? 

C. Is there variety in 

sentence beginning? 
sentence length? 
sentence structure? 

D. Are my words used with precision? Are technical 

terms denned? 

E. Have I read my composition aloud? 

F. Is my title 

short? 

attractive? 

suggestive of the scope of the work? 

in keeping with the purpose of the exposition? 

G. Is this my best penmanship? 
Have I kept the proper margins? 
Have I indorsed my paper? 



214 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

6. The Argumentative Paragraph. — Like the 
expository paragraph, the argumentative para- 
graph demands clearness as one of its prime req- 
uisites. Its purpose, however, is not merely to 
inform and explain, but to convince or persuade. 
The writer uses facts or ideas to prove his point. 
His aim is to win others over to his conclusions 
by showing how every one of his assertions has 
reasonable grounds for acceptance. In the open- 
ing topic sentence, he usually states what he 
wishes to prove. Having selected every detail 
which vitally contributes toward the truth of his 
proposition, he arranges this material in its most 
convincing order in the sentences which follow. 
He reserves the most telling point until the end. 
When it comes, it seems to clinch all the preceding 
points with powerful effect. 

Exercise 105. — Oral 

Name the subject and the distinct purpose of each 
of the following paragraphs. Briefly reproduce each. 
What is the topic sentence of each? What is its posi- 
tion in the paragraph? What purpose, in relation to 
the topic sentence, do the other sentences of the para- 
graph serve? 

(In the early days of our history, at the time when 
the colonists had become acutely dissatisfied and 
irritated over the treatment accorded to them by the 
home government, two sets of opinions prevailed in 
England concerning the course to be pursued toward 
their rebellious subjects across the water. One set 



KINDS OF PARAGRAPHS 215 

embodied Force, the other Conciliation. Paragraphs 
1 and 2 are taken from Edmund Burke's speech before 
Parliament on Conciliation with America.) 

1. A further objection to force is, that you impair the 
object by your very endeavor to preserve it. The thing you 
fought for is not the thing which you recover; but depre- 
ciated, sunk, wasted, and consumed in the contest. Nothing 
less will content me than whole America. I do not choose 
to consume its strength along with our own; because in 
all parts it is the British strength that I consume. I do 
not choose to be caught by a foreign enemy at the end of 
this exhausting conflict; and still less in the midst of it. I 
may escape; but I can make no insurance against such an 
event. Let me add that I do not choose wholly to break the 
American spirit; because it is the spirit that has made the 
country. 

2. The last cause of this disobedient spirit in the colonies 
is hardly less powerful than the rest, as it is not merely 
moral, but laid deep in the natural constitution of things. 
Three thousand miles of ocean he between you and them. No 
contrivance can prevent the effect of this distance in weak- 
ening government. Seas roll and months pass, between the 
order and the execution; and the want of a speedy explana- 
tion of a single point is enough to defeat the whole system. 
You have, indeed, winged ministers of vengeance, who 
carry your bolts in their pounces to the remotest verge of 
the sea. But there a power steps in that limits the arro- 
gance of raging passions and furious elements, and says, 
"So far shalt thou go, and no farther." Who are you, that 
should fret and rage and bite the chains of nature? . . . 
Nothing worse happens to you than does to all nations who 
have extensive empires; and it happens in all the forms 
into which that empire can be thrown. In large bodies, the 
circulation of power must be less vigorous at the extremities; 



216 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

Nature has said it. The Turk can not govern Egypt and 
Arabia, and Curdistan, as he governs Thrace; nor has he 
the same dominion in Crimea and Algiers which he has at 
Brusa and Smyrna. Despotism itself is obliged to truck 
and huckster. The Sultan gets such obedience as he can. 
He governs with a loose rein, that he may govern at all; 
and the whole of the force and vigor of his authority in his 
center is derived from a prudent relaxation in all his borders. 
Spain, in her provinces, is, perhaps, not so well obeyed as 
you are in yours. She complies too; she submits; she 
watches times. This is the immutable condition, the eternal 
law, of extensive and detached empire. 

3. But, sir, the gentleman has failed to maintain his 
leading proposition. He has not shown, it can not be shown, 
that the Constitution is a compact between State govern- 
ments. The Constitution itself, in its very front, refutes 
that idea; it declares that it is ordained and established by 
the people of the United States. So far from saying that it is 
established by the governments of the several States, it does 
not even say that it is established by the people of the sev- 
eral States; but it pronounces that it is established by the 
people of the United States in the aggregate. The gentle- 
man says, it must mean no more than the people of the 
several States. Doubtless, the people of the several States, 
taken collectively, constitute the people of the United States; 
but it is in this, their collective capacity; that is, all the 
people of the United States, that they establish the Consti- 
tution. So they declare; and words can not be plainer than 
the words used. 

Daniel Webster: Refutation of the Nullification Act 

(See History of the United States for nature, cause, and 
outcome of the Nullification Act.) 

A mere assertion does not, of necessity, convince 
another of its truth. It must be supported by facts 



KINDS OF PARAGRAPHS 217 

which lend evidence or proof. Evidence is of various 
sorts, and its weight is determined by the source from 
which it comes. We have 

Evidence of the senses : seeing, hearing, etc. 

Evidence of expert testimony, produced by those 
who have become authorities in any given calling or 
pursuit. 

Evidence of official documents, reports, statistics, 
correspondence, etc. 

Evidence of unofficial correspondence, diaries, etc. 

Circumstantial evidence, gained only through in- 
direct means. , 

One must learn to gather evidence and arrange it in 
the most telling and convincing order before one can 
proceed to argue. 

Exercise 106. — Gathering Evidence 

1. Gather and arrange the evidence in the order of 
importance to prove: 

1. That Marc Antony possessed a keen knowledge of 
human nature. Use Julius Caesar as the source. 

2. That Shylock was "more sinned against than sinning.' ' 
Use Merchant of Venice as the source. 

3. That Eppie in Silas Marner was justified in staying 
with her adopted father. 

4. That John of England in Ivanhoe was not only 
treacherous to his brother, Richard Cceur de Lion, but 
also treacherous to his country. 

Note: Teachers should improvise like questions on the 
particular books being studied in class, if the students 
happen to be unfamiliar with those mentioned. 



218 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

2. Cite as much evidence as you can find, in the 
order of its importance, on five of the following topics. 

1. Why your school gymnasium should have a swimming 
pool. 

2. Why the school building should be surrounded by a 
spacious, well-equipped playground. 

3. Why final examinations should be retained or abolished. 

4. Why older pupils and younger children should have 
separate recesses. 

5. Why dancing should be a part of the physical 
culture work. 

6. Why girls ought to be admitted to a debating club to 
which boys alone are eligible at present. 

7. Why moving pictures may be of an educational value. 

8. Why every student should study some modern foreign 
language. 

Exercise 107. — Oral and Written 

1. Use the following simple statements, needing no 
library investigation, as subjects for argumentative 
paragraphs. Write a series of argumentative para- 
graphs on any one of them. (Consult Appendix B, 
for argumentative outline.) 

2. Deliver a speech on at least one of them before 
the class. Let the class decide whether you made 
your point; whether you stated your proofs clearly, 
forcefully and logically; whether, in your delivery, you 
showed spirit and conviction. 

1. Public schools should be closed during a circus parade. 

2. Pupils should be required in fair weather to go out- 
side the Building at recess time. 

3. Roller skating should be prohibited on the public 
streets. 



KINDS OF PARAGRAPHS 219 

4. Commencement exercises should be made simpler and 
less expensive. 

5. Commercial courses should be offered by all high 
schools. 

6. The honor system in examination is an excellent prepa- 
ration for the normal development of the future business 
man. 

7. All girls should be required to study domestic science. 

8. Sign-board advertising should be restricted by law. 

9. Manual training should be required of all high school 
students. 

10. A taste for plays worthy of support should be devel- 
oped in all high school students, by means of a course in the 
Modern Drama. 

Questions for the student to ask himself after writing 
an argument. 

I. Subject and Proposition: 

A. Have I chosen a subject within my grasp? 

B. Have I stated what I wish to prove in a clear, brief 

proposition? 

C. Is my subject two-sided? 

D. Have I read broadly on both sides of my subject? 

II. Brief: 

A. Have I used the best order to bring out the truth 

of my proposition? 

B. Have I "cleared the ground"; i.e., have I prepared 

my audience, by preliminary statements, when 

necessary, to understand my first argument? 
C Have I chosen for my first argument material 

which will hold the attention of my audience? 
D. Have I considered my audience in selecting all 

my material to prove my side of the proposition? 



220 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

III. The Argument: 

A. Does it progress smoothly? 
jB. Is it direct, convincing, clear? 

C. Have I stated each new argument in such a 

way that the reader or listener will have no 
difficulty in following my trend of thought? 

D. Have I reviewed my points as I have pro- 

gressed? 

IV. Form: 

A . Paragraphing ? 

B. Spelling? 

C. Punctuation? 

D. Penmanship? 

Exercise 108. — Oral and Written 

What is the general purpose of the following adver- 
tisement taken from The Geographical Magazine? 
How does each "story" contribute to this general 
purpose? Account for the order in which the adver- 
vertiser has arranged his "stories." Classify each 
"story" according to its purpose as narrative, descrip- 
tive, expository, or argumentative. Note the lack 
of indenting. Note the illustrations. What relation 
do they bear to the "stories"? How do they help 
the writer's general purpose? 

Dramatize the last paragraph by having a member 
of the class dictate the letter suggested therein. 



LITTLE STORIES OF FIRES THAT 
DIDN'T HAPPEN 



By ELLSWORTH BENNETT 



A year ago the McCormick Co. of Balti- 
more installed a Grinnell Automatic Sprink- 
ler System. They were not'afraid of fire;, 
they did it because the presence of the 
sprinklers would reduce the fire insurance 
rate so radically as to bring about a large 
net saving. 

Five months later some refuse in a chute 
caught fire. The two nearest Grinnell 
sprinkler-heads promptly responded to the 
heat and sent down a drenching torrent of 
water, and at the same time summoned the 
fire department. 

The firemen arrived "on the double quick", 
but the fire was out, and there was nothing 
to do but to turn off the water and go home. 



In the basement of the dry-goods establish- 
ment of Barnard, Summer & Putnam Co., 
Worcester, Mass., a fire broke out on Janu- 
ary 2, 1915. The heat promptly snapped 
the two nearest Grinnell sprinkler-heads 
and put out the fire before the 
fire department could arrive. 
The Chief said that, owing to 
the very dense smoke and the 
Central location of the fire, the 
department would have been 
placed at a nasty disadvan- 
tage. The Grinnell 
System was all that 
saved the store from 
a great disaster. 




At the Hettrick Brothers Co. awning fac- 
tory, at Toledo, a fire occurred in the pack- 
ing department on April 26, after working 
hours. Three Grinnell sprinklers operated 
promptly, checking the flames and ringing 
the fire alarm. That was at 7:46, and at 
7:48 the night watchman had located the 
blaze and called the fire department. At 
8:15 the fire was all out. 



This cigar is 
still burning 
but nobody 
suspects it, 




This match-box fell off the shelf 



In a loft building on East 21st 
Street, New York City, on 
March 29, at 6:40 P. M.. a fire 
broke out on the sixth floor. One 
Grinnell sprinkler-head opened 
and extinguished the fire and at 
the same time summoned the fire depart- 
ment, but when it arrived there was nothing 
to do. 

The Durham Hosiery Mills of Durham, 
N. C, had sixteen fires in their plant last 
year. The Grinnell System controlled every 
one of them, and the total loss was only 
$175.50, an average of $10.90 per fire. 

Gimbel Brothers' great department store in 
New York City has been equipped with 
Grinnell Sprinklers for the last five years. 
They- had one fire but no loss. The Grin- 



221 



LITTLE STORIES OF FIRES THAT DIDN'T HAPPEN 



nell Sprinklers brought about a reduction 
of fire insurance premiums of 57%, enough 
to pay for the Grinnell System in a few 
years. 

The Link Belt Company in Chicago has 
been equipped with Grinnell Sprinklers for 
the last six years. During that time the loss 
by fire has been kept down to only $200, 
thanks to the vigilance of the Sprinklers. 
When they installed the Grinnell System 
the rate was reduced from $t.ii to 
6c, and so the System paid for itself 
within a very few years. 



For about twenty years the 
Grinnell System has been on 
duty at the Reynolds Tobacco 
Company, Winston - Salem, 




-W 



N. C. It reduced their insurance premiums 
between 80% and 9070, and these reduc- 
tions paid for the System in about five 
years. Fires, six; loss, $1,100. 



In the great Long Island factory of Stein- 
way & Sons, Piano Manufacturers, Grin- 
nell Sprinklers were installed at a cost of 
$30,000; but the insurance companies were 
glad to insure them at a premium $15,000 
a year less than they paid before they had 
the Grinnell System. 



The following story is general, but although 
it is less picturesque than the specific stories 
above, it is the most important of all: 
During the past 33 years, so the fire rec- 
ords show, automatic sprinklers have saved 
from destruction properties valued at more 
than $700,000,000 out of the $4,500,000,000 
worth of property which enjoys this pro- 
tection. Without sprinkler protection the 
average loss in business fires is over $7,000. 
With sprinkler protection the average fire 



is such a small affair that it is hard to get a 
record of most of them. There have been 
over 17,000 reported fires actually conirolled 



Little, innocent 
call -bell can dis- 
charge a hot spark. 



by Grinnell Sprinklers. Some of them un- 
doubtedly would have been great conflagra- 
tions. 

All this wonderful automatic fire protection 
pays for itself in from three to seven years 
by reducing the fire premiums 40% to 90%. 
Have you ever seen the figures for your 
own business establishment? Do you know 
how long it would take for a Grinnell Sys- 
tem in your premises to pay for itself? 
Don't theorize! Get the figures! 
No apparent obstacle should prevent your 
getting the. figures — not even the lack of 
capital to invest. Scores of prosperous 
business houses. every year feel that they 
are not justified in using their own. capital, 
so long as they can obtain a system and 
turn over their premium savings as pay- 
ments until the system is clear. They do 
this through certain Construction Compan- 
ies, in a way that does not interfere 'with 
their credit relations with their regular 
banks. 

Dictate a letter or make a memorandum to 
do so today. The address is the General 
Fire Extinguisher Co., 293 West Exchange 
Street, Providence, R. I. If you want to 
know about the deferred - payment plan 
offered by construction companies, ask 
specifically for that information. In order 
to be able to present to you figures on the 
cost of the Grinnell System and a prelimi- 
nary estimate of the savings you will make, 
we will. first forward you a small blank to 
fill out with necessary data about your rloor 
areas and present rate of insurance- 



222 



Chapter X 
SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE 

1. The Social Letter. — The term social letter 
is applied to correspondence among friends or 
relatives. Its intimate nature makes it less formal 
and, therefore, less subject to the somewhat rigid 
requirements laid down for the business letter. 
Informality of style, large expression of the indi- 
viduality of the writer, chatty tone, and unrestricted 
length are characteristics that distinguish the 
friendly letter. If your letter is so interesting and 
so well constructed that the recipient finds a 
delight in its content and a desire to answer it 
immediately, you may feel reasonably certain 
that it is a good piece of work. But it must appear 
spontaneous. The familiar letter is in reality a 
conversation committed to paper. 

2. The Parts of the Social Letter. — The social 
letter retains many of the conventional parts of 
a business letter. 

1. The heading. — In general, this gives the ad- 
dress of the writer and the date of the writing. 

2. The salutation. — It may take various forms, 
depending on the relation between the writer and the 
recipient. 

223 



224 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

More formal 
Dear Mr. Thompson: My dear Mrs. Maxwell: 

My dear Mr. Thompson: Dear Miss Wyatt: 

Dear Mrs. Maxwell: My dear Miss Wyatt: 

Less formal, and assuming a closer intimacy 
My dear Joseph, Dear Ethel, 

Dear Joe, My dear Evelyn, 

My dear Thompson, Dear Aunt, 

Dear Cousin Joe, My dear Uncle, 

The comma is the least formal punctuation. More 
formal is the colon. 

3. The body. — This is the message which the 
writer desires to send. Care should be taken in its 
composition, its punctuation, and its paragraphing. 
The mere fact that the letter is intimate does not imply 
that it should be careless in details of construction. 

4. The complimentary close. 

More formal 
Sincerely yours, Very sincerely yours, 

Yours sincerely, Yours very sincerely, 

Less formal 
Cordially yours, Lovingly yours, 

Yours faithfully, Yours affectionately, etc. 

5. The signature. — Sometimes in familiar letters 
merely the first name is given, but more often the 
habitual signature is appended. 

Exercise 109. — Oral and Written 

1. Read the following social letters. Make an 
analysis of each of them, trying to find those qualities 



SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE 225 

which give spontaneity, chattiness, interest, sugges- 
tions of the personality of the writer. 

4 Marlborough Place, May 9, 1882. 
My dear Romanes: 

I feel it very difficult to offer any useful criticism on 
what you have written about Darwin, because, although it 
does not quite please me, I cannot exactly say how I think 
it might be improved. My own way is to write and rewrite 
things, until by some sort of instinctive process they acquire 
the condensation and symmetry which satisfies me. And I 
really could not say how my original drafts are improved 
until they somehow improve themselves. 

Two things, however, strike me. I think there is too 
much of the letter about Henslow. I should be disposed 
to quote only the most characteristic passages. 

The other point is that I think strength would be given 
to your panegyric by a little pruning here and there. 

I am not likely to take a low view of Darwin's position 
in the history of science, but I am disposed to think that 
Buffon and Lamarck would run him hard in both genius 
and fertility. In breadth of view and in extent of knowl- 
edge these two men were giants, though we are apt to for- 
get their services. Von Bar was another man of the same 
stamp; Cuvier, in a somewhat lower rank, another; and J. 
Miiller, another. 

"Colossal" does not seem to me to be the right epithet 
for Darwin's intellect. He had a clear, rapid intelligence, a 
great memory, a vivid imagination, and what made his 
greatness was the strict subordination of all these to his 
love of truth. 

But you will be tired of my carping, and you had much 
better write what seems right and just to yourself. 
Ever yours very faithfully, 

T. H. Huxley. 



226 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 



4 Marlborough Place, N. W., April 12, 1883. 

Dearest Pabelunza: 

I was quite overcome to-day to find that you had van- 
ished without a parting embrace to your "faded but fasci- 
nating" parent. I clean forgot you were going to leave 
this peaceful village for the whirl of Gloucester dissipation 
this morning — and the traces of weeping on your visage, 
which should have reminded me of our imminent parting, 
were absent. 

My dear, I should like to have given you some good 
counsel. You are but a simple village maiden — don't be 
taken by the appearance of anybody. Consult your father 
— inclosing photograph and measurement (in inches) — in 
any case of difficulty. 

Also give my love to the matron your sister, and tell her 
to look sharp after you. Treat her with more respect than 
you do your venerable P. — whose life will be gloom hidden 
by a film of heartless jests till you return. 

Item. — Kisses to Ria and Co. — Your desolated Pater. 



Eastbourne, Jan. 30, 1890. 

You Dear Old Humbug of a Boy: 

Here we have been mourning over the relapse of influenza, 
which alone, as we said, could have torn you from your 
duties, and all the while it was nothing but an attack of 
palpitation such as young people are liable to and seem 
none the worse for after all. We are as happy that you 
are happy as you can be yourself, though from your letter 
that seems saying a great deal. I am prepared to be the 
young lady's slave; pray tell her that I am a model father- 
in-law, with my love. (By the way, you might mention 
her name; it is a miserable detail, I know, but would be 



SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE 227 

interesting.) Please add that she is humbly solicited to 
grant leave of absence for the Teneriffe trip, unless she 
thinks Northallerton air more invigorating. 
Ever your loving dad, 

T. H. Huxley. 

2. Write a letter to a friend telling of an engine 
you have constructed. 

3. Compose a "thank-you letter" after a visit 
to a friend. Include your impressions of fellow trav- 
elers and scenery observed on your homeward trip. 

4. Write to a friend of your experiences keeping 
house for your father while your mother is away. 

5. Cheer up a sick friend by writing a jolly letter 
to her. 

Exercise 110.— Written 

The following outlines of social letters written by 
students may prove suggestive. Write letters based 
upon similar experiences that you have had. 

1. A mass meeting at school; hunting trip; loss of sleep 
due to a howling dog; campaign planned against this nui- 
sance ; news about a few of the boys at school. 

2. A canoe trip; work in hay fields contrasted with life 
earlier in vacation; automobile trip planned for early 
September. 

3. Experience with an old motor boat; the building of a 
new one; the sale of the old craft; success at learning to 
swim; summer plans for next season ; news from old friends. 

4. Recollections of an exciting experience with your 
correspondent; a similar but new adventure; a joke on 
your brother and his automobile; a race with a friend, the 
result, and your punishment. 



228 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

5. Comments upon the results of the "World Series"; 
an account of a friend visiting your sister; a brief character 
sketch of your new football captain; a forecast of the school 
team's chances; plans for a school social of which you are 
chairman. 

3. Invitations and Replies. — Invitations and 
replies, like letters, differ in the degree of formality 
they express, and call for a corresponding differ- 
ence in treatment. 

1. An informal invitation resembles a social letter. 
Sometimes the heading does not include the. name of 
the town, nor the actual date. Instead, merely the 
street address and the day of writing are given, as: 

12 S Street, 
Wednesday morning. 

The address of the sender and the date may be 
written below and at the left. Often the day of the 
month is written out in full. The year may be 
omitted. 

2. An informal reply should be modeled on the 
informal invitation and, in case of acceptance, 
should repeat the date and hour mentioned in the 
invitation. In case of declining, only the date need 
be mentioned. 

3. A formal invitation is written in the third 
person from beginning to end. It has no heading, no 
salutation, no complimentary close, no signature. 
The writer's name is found within the body. 

Usually in the lower left-hand corner, the address 
of the sender is placed. It may or may not be fol- 



SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE 229 

lowed by the date. If a date is added it includes the 
month and the day of the month written out in full. 
The year is usually omitted. 

4. A formal reply is modeled on the invitation and, 
therefore, is likewise in the third person. The date 
and hour mentioned in the invitation should always 
be repeated in an acceptance. In declining, no 
mention of the hour is necessary. 

A formal invitation 

Dr. and Mrs. William Collett request the 
pleasure of Mr. and Mrs. George Prentice's 
company at dinner on Tuesday evening, 
March fourteenth, at seven o'clock. 

7 Ware Road. 

A formal acceptance 

Mr. and Mrs. Prentice accept with pleas- 
ure Dr. and Mrs. William Collett's kind 
invitation to dinner on Tuesday evening, 
March fourteenth, at seven o'clock. 

126 Prospect Avenue, 
March fourth. 

An informal invitation 

My dear Mrs. Prentice, 

Will you and Mr. Prentice give us the 
pleasure of your company at dinner on 
Tuesday, March fourteenth, at seven 
o'clock? 

Very sincerely yours, 

Eleanor Collett. 
7 Ware Road. 



230 * EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

An informal acceptance 
My dear Mrs. Collett, 

Mr. Prentice and I shall be pleased to 
dine with you on Tuesday, the fourteenth, 
at seven o'clock. 

Very sincerely yours, 

Hazel Prentice. 
126 Prospect Avenue, 
March seventh. 

An informal declination 
My dear Mrs. Collett, 

Mr. Prentice and I regret sincerely that 
a previous engagement will deprive us of the 
pleasure of dining with you on Tuesday, the 
fourteenth. 

Very sincerely yours, 
Hazel Prentice. 
126 Prospect Avenue, 
March sixth. 

A formal declination giving a reason 
Mr. and Mrs. Prentice regret that absence 
from the city will prevent their acceptance of 
the kind invitation to dine with Dr. and Mrs. 
William Collett on Tuesday evening, March 
the fourteenth. 

A formal declination giving no reason 
Mr. and Mrs. Prentice regret that they are 
unable to accept Dr. and Mrs. Collett's kind 
invitation to dinner on Tuesday evening, 
March the fourteenth. 



Chapter XI 

A GENERAL STUDY OF THE BUSINESS LETTER 

1. Foreword. — A century ago, business was 
conducted on a very limited scale. All letters 
had to be written by hand, postal rates were high, 
postal transmission was slow, and poor transpor- 
tation facilities kept most commercial intercourse 
within restricted areas. To-day, commercial trans- 
actions reach all over the world, and a mass of 
correspondence is necessary to carry on this great 
volume of business. Fortunately, improvements in 
methods of correspondence have kept pace with 
the expansion of trade. Many inventions designed 
to save time and energy have been perfected, such 
as the typewriter, duplicating machines, and filing 
cabinets. The use of the typewriter has resulted 
in the adoption of a more or less stereotyped form 
for business letters. Minor variations are allowed, 
but in the main all business letters will be found 
to have one general arrangement. 

The following illustrates the usual type of business 
letter: 

231 



232 



EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 



Letterhead 



NEWSON & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS 

NEW YORK— BOSTON— CHICAGO 

73 FIFTH AVENUE at FIFTEENTH STREET 
NEW YORK 



Heading 

(date) 



April 19, 1916. 



T x j + ^„ Mr. Ralph W. Blackwell, 
Introductory Business High School, 

address Washington, D. C. 

Salutation Dear Sir: 

We are sending you a copy of BUEHLER'S MODERN 
ENGLISH GRAMMAR, REVISED 1914, which is a new edi- 
tion of "A Modern English Grammar", first published 
fourteen years ago. 

Having in mind the excellence of the original 
"book, we have the fullest confidence that the au- 
thor's riper judgment as found in the revised edi- 
tion of "A Modern English Grammar" will he fully 
appreciated by those who are seeking a thoroughly 
up-to-date English grammar. 

This is the first book on the subject to incor- 
porate the new terminology recommended by the Joint 
Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature. Cur author' i 
prompt recognition of the efforts of the Committee 
to standardize grammatical terras is being highly 
commended throughout the country. The inclusion of 
the new nomenclature is but one of many excellent 
features that have been introduced to improve an al« 
ready conspicuously successful textbook. 

We should like to have your frank criticism of 
the work. 



Body 



Complimen- 
tary close 

Signature 



Very truly yours, 




GENERAL STUDY OF THE BUSINESS LETTER 233 

2. The Parts of a Business Letter. — The six 
parts of a business letter are: the Heading; the 
Introductory Address; the Salutation; the Body; 
the Complimentary Close; the Signature. 

A. The Heading. — The heading of a letter gives 
two important facts: the address at which the letter 
is written and the date of its composition. The 
address tells the recipient where a reply is to be sent, 
and therefore must be given with such definiteness 
that an answer, so directed, will not go astray. The 
importance of the date cannot be over-emphasized. 
For ordinary filing and reference, it contains a real 
value, and in case of a dispute it may be of inestima- 
ble importance. 

The parts of the heading may occupy one, two, or 
three lines. These various parts of the address are 
customarily set off from one another by commas. The 
address is usually separated from the date by a 
comma. In the date, the day of the month is always 
written in Arabic numerals, and is ordinarily sep- 
arated from the year by a comma. The name of the 
month should be either written in full or correctly 
abbreviated. If abbreviated, it is followed by a 
period; otherwise, by no punctuation. 

Specimens of Arrangement of the Heading: 

(1) 



Olean, N. Y., October 1, 1917. 



234 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

(2) 



202 King Ave., Detroit, Mich., 
Jan. 4, 1918. 

(3) 



Room 437, Colorado Building, 

1342 Broadway, New York, N. Y., 
May 16, 1918. 



(4) 



868 Main Street 
Pittsburgh, Pa. 
Oct. 26, 1918. 

Note 1 : Some firms omit the commas which are usually 
placed at the ends of lines occurring within the heading and 
the introductory address. Consult (4) above, and introduc- 
tory addresses, pages 235-236. 

Note 2: Do not follow the numeral indicating the date 
with st, d, th. They add nothing to the meaning. Write 
June 3, 1918. 

Note 3: The months May, June, and July are not abbre- 
viated. The other months are abbreviated as follows: 



Jan. 


Apr. 


Oct. 


Feb. 


Aug. 


Nov 


Mar. 


Sept. 


Dec. 



Note 4: A business letter is written on only one side of 
the sheet. If the letter requires a second sheet, that sheet is 
usually headed with the number in the center near the top ; 
and on the same line as the number, beginning at the left- 



GENERAL STUDY OF THE BUSINESS LETTER 235 

hand margin, are placed the initials of the recipient; the 

date is written on the same line, in figures in the right-hand 

corner. 

J. C. B. 2. 1/3/16. 

E. B. & Co. to J. C. B. 2. 1/3/16. 

Exercise 111. — Written 

1. Select your own dates and make proper headings 
for the following : 

1. A letter from yourself. 

2. A letter from any small town in your state. 

3. A letter from any large city store. 

4. A letter from a numbered office in a city building. 

5. A letter from the office of your school principal. 

2. Arrange and punctuate the following: 

1. Milwaukee Jan 18 1918 Wis 

2. Kearns Building 14 Apr Salt Lake City 1916 Utah 

3. 16 Oct New York n y 196 Broadway 1915 

4. Schuylkill Co Park Place 1917 May 29 Penna 

5. Euclid Ave 277 Oct 31 Cleveland 1918 

B. The Introductory Address. — The introductory 
address comprises the title, name, and address of the 
person or persons to whom the letter is sent. If the 
letter is addressed to a corporation, no title is used. 
For example, The Standard Oil Co., New York, N. Y. 

Mr. C. W. Webster, Metropolitan Cashier, 

Equitable Life Assurance Society of the U. S., 
New York, N. Y. 

• 
The English Journal 

68th Street and Stewart Avenue 
Chicago, 111. 



236 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

Mr. E. C. WMte 

398 Greene Ave. 

Brooklyn, N. Y. P. 0. Box 762, 

Hartford, Conn. 
Mr. Henry B. Whitney, 

387 Alvey Street, P. 0. Box 512, 

Rochester, New York. Harvard, Mass. 

The introductory address may occupy two or three 
lines. The first line begins at the regular left-hand 
margin; the second line at the second or paragraph 
margin; and so on. Many firms are beginning to use 
a vertical margin. See Introductory Address above. 
As always, abbreviated words are followed by periods. 
Commas generally separate the main parts of the 
address. A period is usually placed at its end. 

The titles regularly used are: Mr. (Mister), in ad- 
dressing one man. If he has acquired distinction in 
one of the professions, that distinction is usually indi- 
cated. Dr. (Doctor) precedes a physician's or a 
dentist's name; Rev. or the Rev. (the Reverend) pre- 
cedes a pastor's, priest's, or rabbi's name, and RL 
Rev. or the Rt. Rev. (the Right Reverend), a bishop's 
name; Esq. (Esquire), once used for men of mild 
distinction, is now almost interchangeable with Mr., 
although, in the United States, it is used especially 
for lawyers and justices of the peace. It follows the 
name of the person addressed. Never use both Mr. 
and Esq. in addressing an individual. Prof. (Professor) 
legitimately belongs to those who hold positions of 
professorial rank in our colleges and universities. 
Hon. (Honorable) is used as the title of an important 
government official; as, a member of Congress, a 



GENERAL STUDY OF THE BUSINESS LETTER 237 

cabinet officer, an ambassador, governor, lieutenant- 
governor, judge, or mayor. Messrs. (Messieurs) is 
the title of two or more men associated in business. 
Miss, the title of an unmarried woman, is not an 
abbreviation and, therefore, is not followed by a 
period. The plural is Misses. Mrs. (Mistress) is 
the title used in addressing a married woman. Mmes. 
(Mesdames) is the plural. In addressing a letter to 
a married woman, the title of her husband should 
not be given. Do not write Mrs. Dr. Jones, etc., 
but Mrs. C. E. Jones. If she is a widow, it is 
customary to address her by her Christian name. 
Write Mrs. Lucy West rather than Mrs. Claude West 
Titles conferred by colleges and universities, if 
mentioned, as a rule follow the name. The most dis- 
tinguished of these titles are Ph.D. (Doctor of Philoso- 
phy); LL.D. (Doctor of Laws); Litt.D. (Doctor of 
Literature); D.C.L. or J.C.D. (Doctor of Civil Laws); 
D.D. (Doctor of Divinity); Mus.D. (Doctor of 
Music); M.D. (Doctor of Medicine) ; D.D.S. (Doctor 
of Dental Surgery) . When the title which precedes the 
name is equivalent to the title which follows, use 
only one. Do not write Dr. J. B. Shaw, M.D. Write 
Dr. J. B. Shaw or J. B. Shaw, M.D. 

Exercise 112. — Written 

Write the suitable title for each of the following. 
Arrange the introductory addresses properly. 

1. Smith & Brown (business firm), Kalamazoo, Mich. 

2. Charles W. Eliot (Doctor of Laws), ex-President of 
Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. 



238 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

3. Ellen Fairfax (unmarried), Flushing, L. I. 

4. The governor of your state. 

5. John S. Hales (physician), Birmingham, Ala. 

6. W. A. Neilson (Doctor of Philosophy), Professor, 
Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. 

7. The Express Company in your town. 

8. Edgar Sinclair (private citizen), Lansing, Mich. 

9. 0. P. Gifford (Doctor of Divinity), Boston, Mass. 

10. Joseph Wilson (Attorney at Law), Belvidere, N. J. 

11. Mary Parker (widow of Kenneth Parker) , Hot Springs, 
Ark. 

12. Mildred and Bertha Blank (unmarried sisters), 
Pensacola, Fla. 

C. The Salutation. — The salutation is the cour- 
teous means of addressing one's correspondent. It 
stands directly below the introductory address and 
begins at the regular left-hand margin. It may be 
followed by a colon, or a colon and dash, or a comma, 
or a comma and dash. Usage differs widely on this 
point. 

The various common salutations of business letters 
are: 

Dear Sir ] ,. lx 

t. , , c. \ applied to one man. 

My dear Sir J rr 

P t i ) applied to two or more men, a firm, or a 

corporation. Applied to a firm composed 
of both men and women. 

Dear Madam, applied to a woman, married or unmarried. 

Mesdames 1 ;. , . 

t j- f applied to two or more women. 

Do not abbreviate any word in the salutation. Do 
not capitalize the word dear if it is preceded, by my. 



Dear Sirs | 



GENERAL STUDY OF THE BUSINESS LETTER 239 

Exercise 113. — Written 

Write the appropriate salutations to the following 
addresses. 

1. Prof. N. E. Griffin, 

Princeton University, 
Princeton, N. J. 

2. The Oliver Typewriter Co., 

Chicago, 111. 

3. Messrs. Forbes & Wallace, 

Springfield, Mass. 

4. Miss Jane Addams, 
Hull House, 
Chicago, 111. 

5. Mmes. Baxter & Rowe, 

El Paso, Tex. 

D. The Body. — The body of the letter contains 
the information which you desire to convey. Its 
contents differ according to the purpose of the letter. 
In another chapter some of the various aspects of 
this very important division will be dwelt upon. 

E. The Complimentary Close. — Just as the salu- 
tation is a sign of courtesy in opening a letter, so the 
complimentary close is a sign of courtesy in ending it. 
Its omission would be a sign of very bad taste. To 
abbreviate it would be discourteous. 

Ordinary business letters commonly conclude with: 
Yours truly, Truly yours, Very truly yours, Yours 
very truly. In case respect is especially intended, the 
word respectfully may be substituted fcr truly. 

Only the first word of the complimentary close is 
capitalized. This closing should occupy a line in 



240 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

itself and should begin about half way between the 
margins. It is followed by a comma. 

F. The Signature. — The signature of the letter, 
which is the writer's name, is important not only as 
indicating to whom a reply should be sent, but also 
as showing who is responsible for the contents of the 
letter. The signature stands below the complimen- 
tary close. 

When the writer is the representative of a firm or 
corporation, the name of the firm, often in typewritten 
form, precedes that of the writer. The writer's name 
and his official position are usually placed beneath the 
name of the firm. Sometimes merely his initials are 
indicated, preceded by the word per. 

THE WHITFORD HAMMOCK COMPANY 

^flGUvl&Qy If "ait 

Treasurer, 
WILLIAMS BOOK COMPANY 

3>£A, ft. &. & 

HANFORD BAKING POWDER CO. 

j^o-natci 7?(a,&cL(yyvalcL 

Superintendent. 
FRANKLIN SOMES SCHOOL 

<&*, /£ a. ot. 

A business man should always sign his name in 
the same way. If his name is John Arthur Jones, he 



GENERAL STUDY OF THE BUSINESS LETTER 241 

should consistently sign it in one of these manners: 
John Arthur Jones, John A. Jones, J. Arthur Jones, 
J. A. Jones. His signature should be legible. 

A woman writing a business letter places her title, 
Miss or Mrs., in parentheses either directly before her 
signature or below it at the left. In other words, she 
should place within the parentheses the name and 
title she expects her correspondent to use in his 
answer. 

(Miss) Ada Clark 

Lucy E. White 
(Mrs. John W.) 

Exercise 114. — Written 

1. Write a letter to Perry, Mason Co., Boston, 
Mass., enclosing $2.00 for a year's subscription to 
The Youth's Companion beginning with the current 
number. 

2. Write to the American Cloak and Suit Co., 
333 Wabash Ave., Chicago, 111., asking for samples 
and a catalogue of their winter styles. 

3. There is a reason why you wish to be relieved 
of some requirement at school. Write a letter to the 
principal asking the favor. 

4. Write a letter to The Saturday Evening Post, 
Independence Square, Philadelphia, Pa., stating a 
change in your address. Indicate your old and your 
new address. 

5. You wish to go on a vacation. Write to some 
hotel at the chosen place inquiring about rates, loca- 
tion, etc. 



242 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

3. Business Stationery. — The common size of 
a business letter sheet is about 8| by 1 1 inches. Two 
sizes of envelopes are used with it. One, 3| by 
6 T 5 T inches, is known as the common business en- 
velope. The other, 4| by 9| inches, is called the 
official envelope. Business paper and envelopes 
should match in color and quality. A plain white 
paper of fine texture is considered the best taste. 

Most business concerns use specially prepared 
stationery. Printed headings, in desired arrange- 
ment, stand near the top of the letter sheet and 
include the name of the firm, its business, and loca- 
tion. Only the date needs to be supplied to com- 
plete the heading. In the upper left hand corner 
of the envelope are printed the firm name and 
address, and certain directions for a return of 
the communication if not delivered within a 
specified time. 

In sending out statements, checks, etc., when it 
is necessary or desirable to save time in addressing, 
the window envelope is used. In the front of this 
envelope an oblong opening is cut, across which 
is pasted, inside, a piece of strong waxed paper; or 
a space on the front, of the proper size and shape, 
is so treated that it becomes transparent and allows 
the address to show through. The sheet contained 
in the envelope is folded in such a way that the 
introductory address comes under the opening and 
can be read through the transparent paper. If 
the envelope is large enough to contain the sheet 



GENERAL STUDY OF THE BUSINESS LETTER 243 

without folding, the address on the latter is so 
spaced as to come under the opening. (See illus- 
tration No. II, Figs. 11-15.) The use of these 
envelopes for letters, although not very general, is 
rapidly increasing. 

4. Folding a Letter. 1 — For the common busi- 
ness envelope, fold the lower edge of the letter 
sheet up to within half an inch of the upper edge. 
Crease this fold evenly and firmly. Illustration I 
(Fig. 1). Turn this folded sheet so that its cut 
edge lies squarely at the right hand, with the 
folded one at the left. (Fig. 2). In this position, 
fold from below upward one full third (Fig. 3), 
and from above downward, bringing the edge to 
within half an inch of the lower fold. (Fig. 4). 
Insert the letter in the envelope so that this lower 
fold is at the top. (Fig. 5). 

For official envelopes, fold the paper down from 
the top one-third its length, fold up one-third from 
the bottom (Fig. 6), and insert in the envelope 
with the lower fold at the bottom. (Fig. 7). 

In folding the half sheet, fold over the right-hand 
end a scant third and crease. Illustration II 
(Fig. 8). Fold over the left-hand end so that the 
edge is within one-half inch of the first fold. (Fig. 
9). Insert in the envelope with the first fold at 
the top. (Fig. 10). 

1 Note to the Teacher: Use the letters on the figures in 
giving practice lessons. 



244 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 







T a « 






GENERAL STUDY OF THE BUSINESS LETTER 245 




/o 




/z. 



D 



zrrz: 



/3 



If 




X 



246 



EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 



5. The Envelope. — The addressed envelope 
must carry the name and the address of the person 
or persons to whom the letter is sent, and the 
proper postage. If the letter goes to a city, be 
sure to give the street and number. If it goes to a 
very small town or village, give the name of the 
county. Whether to village or city, always give 
the name of the state. Illustrations III and IV. 



fy 



F&fc- 



r. /fey* 









./J?J. 


_ , 



III 



GENERAL STUDY OF THE BUSINESS LETTER 247 






(j£«is*u^o A. //as*. 





IY 

Such words and expressions as Personal, For- 
ward, In care of (c/o), R.F.D., etc., are placed in 
the lower left-hand corner. The punctuation of 
the address on the envelope should correspond 
to the method used for the introductory address of 
the letter. 



248 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

Exercise 115. — Written 

1. Address envelopes according to the following 
directions. 

1. The Union Trust Co., Main St., Springfield, Mass. 

2. George H. Bogardus, Esq., 497 Washington St., 
Rochester, New York. 

3. Miss Laura White, Smith College, Northampton, 
Mass. 

4. Hon. William T. Pierce, The New Willard, Washing- 
ton, D. C. 

5. Dr. Fred W. Watkins, 234 Bond St., Minneapolis, 
Minn. 

6. Messrs. Underwood and Pardoe, 63 White St., 
Wellsboro, Pa. 

2. Arrange and punctuate the following so as to 
make suitable envelope superscriptions. 

1. Miss Freda Witherspoon r f d Delmar Tioga Co Pa 

2. Mrs Leslie L Wharton Allen's Glen N Y Tioga Co 

3. John B. Williams D D Box 273 Oxford Me 

4. "Star" Office Box 123 Washington D C 

5. Messrs James Brown Watson and Co New York 
N Y Broadway and Canal Sts 

Exercise 116. — Written 

Write letters upon any three of the following sub- 
jects suggested by the actual experience of high 
school students. In revising, apply the subjoined test 
questions. 

1. Order for school stationery. 

2. Order for a class banner. Inclose design and written 
specifications. 



GENERAL STUDY OF THE BUSINESS LETTER 249 

3. Order for class pins. 

4. Request for college catalogue. 

5. Request for hotel accommodations for an athletic team. 

6. Acceptance of an agency for selling a fob. 

7. Card announcing the spring opening of a school mil- 
linery department. 

8. Order of athletic material for a tennis club of six. 
(Consult a catalogue to get prices of equipment needed.) 

Questions for the student to ask himself after writing a 
business letter. 

I. Form: 

A. Is the letter well placed on the page; i.e., are 

the margins in proportion one to another? 

B. Is the heading arranged and punctuated properly? 

(See Chapter XI, pages 233-234.) 

C. Is the introductory address well spaced and prop- 

erly punctuated? (See pages 235, 236.) 

D. Is the salutation proper in respect to the num- 

ber of persons addressed, the sex, and the social 
or business position of the addressee? Is the 
salutation correct in capitalization and punc- 
tuation? 

E. Are the paragraph indentations in the body one 

under the other? 

F. Are lists or enumerations, if they are needed, 

arranged so as to make each item clear to 
the glance of the reader? 

G. Is the complimentary close well spaced in rela- 

tion to the vertical margins? Is only the first 
word capitalized? Is the complimentary close 
followed by a comma? Is it chosen suitably 
to the relation existing between the writer 
and his correspondent? 



250 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

H. Is the signature the one always used by the 
writer? Is it well arranged in relation to the 
complimentary close? If the signature is 
the name of a person, is it written by hand ? 

II. The Content of the Body: 

A. Does each paragraph serve a definite purpose in 

the development of the main idea of the letter? 

B. Is the body paragraphed according to a plan 

that brings out the main ideas of the writer? 

C. Are the paragraphs arranged so as to show the 

natural development of the writer's thought? 

D. Is the relation of each paragraph to its neighbor 

expressed, when necessary, by suitable con- 
necting words and phrases? 

E. Within each paragraph,are the sentences logically 

arranged and definitely connected by well- 
chosen relation words or phrases? Is there va- 
riety in the opening of the various sentences? 
Are all unnecessary repetitions avoided? 
jFV Does the whole letter reflect courtesy, tact, a 
feeling for clear-cut, definite expression? 



Chapter XII 

THE ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF A BUSINESS LETTER 

There are certain notable qualities pertaining 
to all good business letters, no matter what their 
specific contents may be. The writer who has 
learned to master these attributes has laid the 
foundations for successful business-letter writing. 

1. Brevity. — This means the inclusion of every- 
thing bearing on the purpose of the letter and the 
exclusion of everything that seems foreign to its main 
aim. It does not mean abbreviated English, omis- 
sions of necessary parts of speech, and similar mis- 
taken notions. It does not mean writing: "Yours 
rec'd. Contents noted." " Will fill the required no. of 
orders." "Y'rs truly." It does not mean trying to 
squeeze the ideas into a night-letter limit and, there- 
fore, making the ideas appear misshapen. But it 
does imply a judicious selection of ideas and a care- 
ful arrangement of them in as concise and pointed 
a manner as possible. Brevity means saving as 
much of the time of your correspondent as you 
can, without sacrificing clearness. Brevity means 
wasting as little of your own time as you can, 
without sacrificing courtesy. Brevity means direct- 
ness of statement. Brevity means stopping when 
you have finished. 

251 



252 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

2. Clearness. — You must know what you wish 
to say; you must make sure that what you say will 
convey the same idea to your correspondent as it does 
to you. Clearness implies the inclusion of every essen- 
tial that will help make the purpose of your letter 
unmistakable. A careless writer might reply to a 
firm, "Your letter has been received." A careful 
writer would reply, "Your letter of January 27 has 
been received." Never assume that a correspondent 
will be able to supply details to a general statement. 
In some cases, he may do so; but in the large majority, 
such loopholes leave room for errors and misin- 
terpretations. Clearness is one of the paramount 
requirements of all kinds of writing; but never more 
emphatically so than in the business letter. 

3. Accuracy. — A foggy or hazy or badly written 
letter is a bane. It confuses the recipient and reflects 
unpleasantly on the sender. Accuracy, which means 
exactness, precision, and the like, indicates the 
writer's habits of thought. It means that the writer 
is careful, not only about the facts within the letter, 
but about the very arrangement of the letter itself. 
It means that he writes the introductory address 
correctly, uses the proper salutation and complimen- 
tary close, and shows care in the signature. It means 
that he does not fail to see that such little things as 
grammar, spelling, and punctuation are correct. It 
means a statement of the exact amount of a check 
or draft, if either happens to be included. 

4. Courtesy. — Loss of temper in a business letter 
is loss of dignity. Sarcasm is, more often than not, 
a sure means of not attaining the desired results. 



ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF A BUSINESS LETTER 253 

Familiarity, especially if overdone, breeds contempt 
and thwarts the purpose. On the other hand, a letter 
with a courteous tone always appeals. Restraint 
rather than extravagance; simplicity rather than 
floweriness; straightforwardness rather than high 
sounding phrases ; terseness but not curtness, — all 
these intangible things contribute to courteous 
tone. 

5. Completeness and Orderliness of Presenta- 
tion. — A clear letter must be complete in all its de- 
tails. A letter is complete when it fully records the 
facts about the transaction with which it deals. When 
the ideas follow logically and coherently, the letter 
reveals careful and orderly presentation. The use 
of method, that is, of arrangement based on the pur- 
pose of the letter, will lead to completeness. 

Exercise 117. — Oral and Written 

1. Criticize the following letters. Rewrite them 
that they may meet with full approval. 

(1) 

Duluth, Minn., Feb. 5, 1924. 

The Helmer Furniture Co., 
St. Paul, Minn. 

Gentlemen: 

Your shipment at hand. One crate per order 20th not 
rec'd. What's the matter? Withhold check till we hear 
from you. 

Yours, etc., 

Mitchell & Williams 



254 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

(2) 

St. Paul, Minn., Feb. 7, 1924. 
Mitchell & Williams, 

Duluth, Minn. 
Dear Sirs: 

Yours of the 5th inst. received. How can we tell what's 
the matter when you don't specify that particular crate 
which didn't reach you? Your order was completely filled 
at the time of shipment. You had better see the railroad 
company about the articles. Your bill of lading would 
have told you everything was sent. Will look for the check 
by return mail according to earlier agreement. 
Very truly yours, 

The Helmer Furniture Co., 
Per S. S. Chase, Sec'y. 

2. A wholesale book dealer wishes to explain the 
cause of a delay in filling an order for books. Owing 
to a mistake in the address, the package was returned 
to the shipper a few days after it was mailed. The 
mistake was corrected and the package shipped again. 
Write the dealer's letter. 

3. Read the following letter written by a high 
school student whose specific purpose was to compose 
a tactful dunning letter. Analyze the method. 

Springfield, Mass., Apr. 25, 1924. 
Messrs. Little & Morse, 
16 East Clark St., 
Baltimore, Md. 

Gentlemen: 

We wish to advise you that we have not received your 
check for last month's account, amounting to $650.50. 



ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF A BUSINESS LETTER 255 

As you are usually very prompt in your payments, we 
believe that some oversight or mistake is responsible for the 
fact that we have not yet received your remittance. 

Kindly inform us by return mail if you have sent your 
check as usual, so that, if we have made an error, we may 
correct it at once. 

We take this opportunity of informing you that our new 
line of spring styles has just arrived from the factory. 
Very truly yours, 

THE MASON CLOTHING CO. 

4. Discuss the state of mind of a person who has 
had any one of the following experiences. Determine 
upon the best method of pacifying his or her natural 
feelings. Write a tactful letter to meet each condi- 
tion, or give orally the telephone conversation if 
the complaint is made over the telephone. 

1. A lady has bought an expensive traveling dress, the 
fabric of which is so poor that it gave way in a number of 
places on the fourth wearing. She is starting off on her 
summer vacation, and is naturally annoyed to find herself 
deprived of this necessary garment. 

2. A family entertaining guests finds, after all the shops 
are closed, that only part of the ice cream ordered has been 
delivered, so that there is not enough to serve the guests 
properly. 

3. Window shades which have been ordered for a cer- 
tain room do not fit the windows, although careful, written 
directions were given. They are returned to the store in 
person, and the directions repeated. When the shades are 
received the second time, they are found to be even worse 
misfits than before. 

4. A man in the country, desiring a certain technical 
work, writes to his dealer in New York ordering the book, 



256 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

with the proviso that it be sent within a week's time. He 
receives a letter in reply that the book has been ordered 
to be sent direct from the publisher in Boston. He waits 
ten days without receiving the book. He then writes again 
to his dealer. Compose (a) the letter of the New York 
book concern in reply to the customer's complaint; (6) the 
letter sent to the publisher with the object of hastening the 
delivery of the book; and (c) the reply of the publisher to 
the retailer, explaining the cause of the delay. 

5. You have been banking with a certain house for a 
number of years. The officers know you, the firm for which 
you work does business with this bank, and yet a check of 
yours, sent to an out-of-town house, is returned because, by 
a miscalculation, you have overdrawn your account by a few 
cents. Write a letter complaining of this treatment. 

6. The rule of the bank mentioned in number 5 is 
absolute, — no check is honored unless the credit balance 
equals or more than equals the amount of the check. As 
an official of the bank, write a letter in which you review 
past relations with the aggrieved customer, state the bank's 
position, and express a desire for continued patronage. 



Chapter XIII 

ORAL ASPECTS OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATIONS 

1. The Dictation of Business Letters. — Most 
business men dictate their letters. Practice has 
developed in them the habit of saying what they 
have to say in a few, clear, direct, and forceful state- 
ments. They have learned the practical value of 
selecting and arranging their ideas to fulfill imme- 
diate purposes; they have discovered the impor- 
tance of being tactful, lucid, and pleasing, within a 
limited space. 

Exercise 118. — Oral 

1. Each member of the class should be assigned one 
of the subjects below. He should make an oral recita- 
tion by casting his material in letter form, and by 
repeating it slowly enough for the other members of 
the class to write it in long hand. 1 Later the class 
should discuss whether each dictation is, or is not, a 
good business letter. 

1. An excuse for absence from school. 

2. An excuse for absence from class. 

3. Notice of a class meeting. 

1 If the members of the class understand shorthand, this 
exercise should be modified so as to give them practice in 

this subject. 

257 



258 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

4. Notice of postponing an athletic meet. 

5. Notice of a school entertainment. 

6. Notice of a public debate. 

7. Notice of a club meeting. 

8. An appeal for contributions for the athletic associa- 
tion. 

9. The announcement of a prize offered for high scholar- 
ship in English. 

10. A challenge to another class for a public speaking 
contest. 

2. Dictate short business letters in reply to any 
five of the following advertisements. (The same 
method should be employed as suggested in Exer- 
cise 118: 1.) Determine upon a definite purpose. 
Select and arrange your material effectively, so as 
to accomplish this purpose. 

1. LACE CURTAINS LAUNDERED. 

Done like new; terms reasonable. 

2. TYPEWRITERS OF ALL MAKES 

FOR SALE; 

NEW AND REBUILT 

Williams Typewriter Exchange. 

3. PAINTING AND PAPERHANGING. 

Prices reasonable; work guaranteed. 
J. S. Fenn, 159 Rroad St. 

4. Screen doors and windows made and 

repaired. Wilkins & Sons. 



ORAL ASPECTS OF COMMUNICATIONS 259 

5. FOR SALE or trade, modern cottage. 
What have you to offer? Address 
K. L., Republican Office. 

6. WANTED — A good stenographer. 
Address Dr. S. E. Barnes, 45 Oak St. 

7. FOR SALE — Twin cylinder, 7 h.p. 
motorcycle. Address J. X., c/o The 
Times, Times Square. 

8. FOR RENT — A modern seven-room 
house. Terms on inquiry. Address 
V. V., c/o The New York Times, N. Y. 
City. 

9. SEASIDE COTTAGES 

For Sale or Rent 

Also lots on easy monthly payments 

AT GROTON LONG POINT 

6 Miles East of New London. 

Near trolley, fine fishing, beach. 

Send for Circular. 

JAS. JAY SMITH CO. 

50 STATE ST., NEW LONDON, CONN. 

10, REST LODGE, Woodmont-on-the- 

Sound; eight miles from New Haven. 
Special care for those requiring rest, 
relaxation. Reneficial entertainment 
and sports. Esthetic dancing. Week 
ends. Special tariff for teachers dur- 
ing spring vacation. 
Box 165. 



260 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

3. Mr. Wm. Smith lives in Watkins Glen, N. Y., 
during the summer. For the winter he has gone to 
Buffalo and has rented his cottage to Mrs. Sarah 
Burgess. It so happens that the roof springs a leak. 
Different members of the class should be chosen to 
dictate the various letters in this series. 

1. Nov. 6, Mrs. Burgess writes to Mr. Smith about the 
leak. 

2. Nov. 8, Mr. Smith writes Mrs. Burgess that the 
matter of repairs will be attended to at once. 

3. Nov. 8, Mr. Smith writes to George Hogan, a tinner, 
to examine the roof, make an estimate of the extent and 
cost of repairs, and report to him at once. 

4. Nov. 10, Mr. Hogan writes that he has made an ex- 
amination, states the probable cost, and asks if he shall 
go ahead. 

5. Nov. 11, Mr. Smith writes to Mr. Hogan to make 
immediate repairs. 

6. Nov. 13, Mr. Hogan acknowledges Mr. Smith's 
letter. 

7. Nov. 13, Mr. Hogan writes to Sam Baker, Ithaca, 
New York, asking him if he cares to assist him on a tinning 
job, for several days. 

8. Nov. 14, Sam Baker accepts Mr. Hogan's offer. 

9. Nov. 19, Mr. Hogan writes Mr. Smith that the job 
is completed and states the amount of the bill, which is 
inclosed. 

10. Nov. 19, Mrs. Burgess writes to Mr. Smith thanking 
him for his immediate response. 

11. Nov. 21, Mr. Smith returns Mr. Hogan's statement 
with a check for the amount due. 

12. Nov. 21, Mr. Smith writes Mrs. Burgess that he is 
glad the repairs are satisfactory, and expresses apprecia- 
tion of her prompt notification. 



ORAL ASPECTS OF COMMUNICATIONS 261 

Exercise 119. — Written and Oral 
With five minutes for preparation, jot down ten 
subjects suitable for business communications. Dis- 
cuss each subject with the following points in mind. 

A. Is it really a practical business subject? 

B. What particular items must be set forth with care 
and clearness? 

C. Which is, in each case, best — a letter, a personal 
call, a telephone message, or a telegram? Why? What 
disadvantages he in each of these means of communication? 

2. The Telephone Message. — The telephone 

message is really a business communication that 

retains many characteristics of the business letter. 

Usually the name, as well as the address of the 

speaker, is given first, and then the matter in hand 

is taken up. The speaker must be able to say what 

he wishes, quickly, accurately, clearly. He has the 

opportunity of getting immediate replies to some of 

his inquiries. 

Exercise 120. — Oral 

With a limited time at their disposal, let members 
of the class, working in pairs, dramatize some or all 
of the following telephone conversations. Deter- 
mine first upon a specific purpose for each conversation. 

1. Between an automobile dealer and a prospective buyer. 
(See advertisement following). 

PROMINENT MANUFACTURER has one or two 
slightly used cars which he will sell at a low figure and 
on easy terms of payment to a responsible party. Ad- 
dress EDWARD ABBOTT, Boulevard Terrace, Chic- 
opee, Mass. Tel. 4723-R. 



262 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

2. Between a hotel clerk and a guest making reservations 
for a table of eight at the hotel dinner which is advertised 
as follows: 

THE 
HOTEL WORTHY'S 
NEW YEAR'S CELEBRATION 
AND DINNER 

Will be the season's social event. Secure 
your reservations now and enjoy watching 
the Old Year out and the New Year in. 

3. Between the proprietor of a market and a customer 
ordering goods. Select from the articles in the following 
advertisement. 

GOOD THINGS TO EAT 



TO-DAY 
SPECIAL PRIME 
POULTRY 
TURKEYS, FOWLS 
ROASTING CHICKENS 

BROILERS 

Choice Roasts of Heavy Beef, 

Tender Steaks, 

Native Veal and Lamb, 

Spinach, Dandelions, Beet Greens, New 

Cabbage, New Potatoes, Celery, Green 

Peppers, Lettuce, Cucumbers, Grapefruit, 

Oranges, Bananas. 1916 Maple Sirup and 

Sugar. 

CHARLES E. BROWN CO. 

160 Main St. 

Tel. 1570-1571. 



ORAL ASPECTS OF COMMUNICATIONS 263 

4. Between a real estate dealer and a prospective 
client. Discuss the piece of property described as follows: 

HERE is a good and sure investment: 2 
building lots in the Forest Park district on 
Sumner Ave., $700 each; we will guaran- 
tee to return the money with 5 % interest at 
the end of 2 years if you are not satisfied with 
the investment; act quickly, it's a bargain 
and will increase in value very fast; we have 
good reasons for making this offer, which we 
will explain if you are interested. Call or 
telephone between 12 and 3 o'clock. Chas. 
P. Corwin & Edward F. Seymour, Room 
376, 318 Main St. Tel. 4650. 

5. Between a doctor and a druggist. 

6. Between a freight clerk and a department store ship- 
per with regard to certain foreign rates. 

7. Between the class president and the class treasurer. 

8. Between a decorator and a householder who wishes 
to inquire prices and make an appointment with the deco- 
rator for the latter to call and submit samples and estimates. 

9. Between a clerk at a State Free Employment Bureau 
and a housewife who wants a "handy man" to help in spring 
cleaning. 

10. Between the clerk in the Information Booth at a 
railroad station and a person asking about the time of trains 
running to a certain place, and the price of the ticket. 



Chapter XIV 

PARLIAMENTARY PROCEDURE 

The formal business discussions of clubs, socie- 
ties, town meetings, and similar organizations are 
conducted according to parliamentary rule and 
regulation. The following dramatization, with its 
accompanying footnotes, should give a student 
sufficient information concerning parliamentary 
procedure to enable him to preside over, or take 
part in, a simple business meeting. 

BUSINESS PART OF A MEETING OF THE "FORUM" 
The President (pounding gavel on table). The meeting 
will come to order and the Secretary will call the roll. 
(Hereupon follows the roll-call by the Secretary.) 
The President. We shall now listen to the reading of 
the minutes of the previous meeting. 

The Secretary. Mr. President, 1 and fellow members of 
the Forum. (Reading.) " The regular meeting of the Forum 
was held on Wednesday evening, April 15, at 7: 15, with 20 
members present. In the absence of the President, the 
meeting was called to order by the Vice President. 2 The 
minutes of the previous meeting were read and approved. 
The Treasurer gave his quarterly report, showing a balance 

1 The presiding officer is always addressed by his title. 

2 The Vice President presides over a meeting in the 
absence of the President, and is called Mr. President 

264 



PARLIAMENTARY PROCEDURE 265 

of $16 in the treasury. After his report, which was accepted, 
it was moved, seconded, and carried that further business 
be laid aside, and that the regular literary program be taken 
up. Mr. Dexter then delivered a declamation; Mr. Wilson 
gave a reading from A Tale of Two Cities; Mr. Hillis gave 
an original oration on Conserving Our Forests. A debate: 
'Resolved: That the commission form of government should 
be adopted by all cities having a population of more than 
50,000,' was decided in favor of the negative. The speakers 
for the affirmative were Messrs. Rich and Gordon; for the 
negative, Messrs. Lewis and Hamilton. After the debate 
the meeting was adjourned." x 

The President. You have heard the reading of the 
minutes. Are there any corrections? 

Mr. Thompson. Regarding the debate — 

The President (ignoring Mr. Thompson). Are there 
any corrections? 

Mr. Thompson (rising). Mr. President — 

The President (recognizing Mr. Thompson because he 
has addressed the chair). Mr. Thompson. 

Mr. Thompson (proceeding). The Secretary failed to 
mention that the judges of the debate were Messrs. Harper 
and Goodwin, and the Secretary. 

The President. The Secretary will please make 
note of the omission. Are there any further corrections? 
(Pauses.) If not, do I hear a motion accepting the minutes 
as corrected? 

A Member (obtaining the floor). 2 I move that the 
minutes be accepted as corrected. 

1 A motion to adjourn cannot be debated nor amended, 
and is always in order. 

2 To make a motion or a correction, or to take part in a 
discussion, a member must rise, address the President, and 
be recognized. This is called ''obtaining the floor." 



266 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

Another Member (seated). I second the motion. 1 

The President. It has been moved and seconded that 
the minutes be accepted as corrected. All in favor say 
"Aye." (Here are heard a number of ayes.) Those opposed, 
"No." (No response.) The motion is carried. 2 

We next proceed to communications. 3 Has the Secre- 
tary received any communications? 

The Secretary (rising). Mr. President, I have a letter 
from the Clay Society. It reads: 

Peabody High School, 
Waltham, Mass., 
May 8, 1924. 
The Secretary of the Forum, 
Technical High School, 
Newton, Mass. 

Dear Sir: 

We, the members of the Clay Society, hereby challenge 
the Forum to a debate to take place before the close of the 
school year. If you care to accept our challenge, we shall 
be pleased to have a committee of ours meet a committee 
of yours to arrange the details of the contest. 
Very truly yours, 

James J. Smith, 
For the Clay Society 

1 All motions must be seconded. To second a motion, 
the member remains seated and says, "I second the 
motion." 

2 If he prefers, the President may say, "It is a vote," 
or "The ayes have it." 

3 The usual order of procedure is: Call to order, roll 
call, Secretary's minutes, Treasurer's report, communica- 
tions, reports of officers and committees, unfinished busi- 
ness, new business, program for the day, adjournment. 



PARLIAMENTARY PROCEDURE 267 

The President. You have heard the communication 
from the Clay Society of the Peabody High School. What 
is your pleasure? 

A Member (obtaining the floor). Mr. President, I 
move that we pass to new business at once and consider 
this communication. 

Another Member (seated). I second the motion. 

(Hereupon the President puts the motion, which is carried.) 

The President. We are now under new business. 

Mr. Harper (obtaining the floor). I think that this is an 
unusual chance for us to show our ability and, therefore, I 
move that we accept the challenge of the Clay Society to a 
debate before the close of the school year, and that the chair 
appoint a committee of three to confer with a committee 
from the Clay Society to arrange the details of the contest. 

A Member (seated) . I second the motion. 

The President. You have heard the motion that we 
accept the challenge of the Clay Society to a debate, before 
the close of the school year, and that the chair appoint a 
committee of three to confer with a committee from the 
Clay Society to arrange the details of the contest. All 
those in favor — 

A Member (rising). Mr. President, I rise to a point 
of order. 1 

The President. Mr. Gordon will state his point of order. 

Mr. Gordon. This motion is debatable; and, therefore, 
should be presented to the society for discussion. 

The President. The point of order is well taken. The 
question is now open for discussion. 

Mr. Harper (obtaining the floor). In making my motion, 

1 To rise to a "point of order" or a "parliamentary 
inquiry," to object to consideration, or to call for a "divi- 
sion," the member rises and addresses the President, but 
does not need to wait to be recognized. 



268 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

I did so with the sincere conviction that just such a debate 
would be a big thing. We fellows have been doing some hard 
work this winter, and I believe that this will be an excellent 
chance to show the public at large what stuff this society is 
made of. (Applause.) It would be a mistake to allow such 
an opportunity to slip by. (Takes seat amid applause.) 

Mr. Gordon (rising). Mr. President — 

The President. Mr. Gordon. 

Mr. Gordon. What Mr. Harper says sounds well in 
theory, but — I want to ask him if he considered that the 
school year is about over, that we have not done real serious 
work this past month, that preparation at this time would 
mean almost impossible effort. As a member of last year's 
debating team, I may say for the benefit of the uninitiated 
that such preparation is most arduous and requites nearly 
every spare minute for weeks. Furthermore, if the Clay 
Society wished a debate, why didn't they send their chal- 
lenge earlier? I am certainly against a contest at this 
time. I see no reason, though, why an acceptance of the 
challenge might not be sent with the understanding that 
the debate take place in the fall. (Applause.) 

The President. Does the speaker wish to move an 
amendment to that effect? 

Mr. Gordon. Mr. President, I move that the original 
motion be amended to read: that the Forum accept the 
challenge of the Clay Society for a debate, provided that 
the debate be held early next fall; and, furthermore, that, 
if the Clay Society consent to the change of time, the chair 
appoint a committee of three to confer with a committee 
from the Clay Society on the details of the contest. 

A Memrer (seated). I second the amendment. 

The President. Do the mover and seconder of the 
original motion accept the amendment? 

Mr. Harper. I do. 

The Seconder I do. 



PARLIAMENTARY PROCEDURE 269 

The President. Is there any further discussion? If not, 
all in favor of the motion as amended will say "Aye." 
(Shouts of ayes.) Those opposed, ' ' No. ' ' (Shouts of noes.) 

Mr. Thompson. Mr. President, I call for a division. 

The President. A division is called for. All in favor 
will please rise and stand until counted. (They do. The 
Secretary counts the number of votes, and reports to the 
President.) Those opposed will now stand. (They do. 
The Secretary counts, and reports to the President.) The 
motion is carried by a vote of 15 to 10. The Secretary will 
transmit our decision to the Clay Society. Is there any 
further new business? (No response.) If not, further con- 
sideration of new business is closed. 1 Mr. Secretary, are 
there any other communications? (The Secretary: There 
are none.) Are there any reports of officers and committees? 
(No response.) We have now come to unfinished business. 
If there is nothing under this head, we shall proceed to our 
regular literary program 

After the literary program has been rendered, the Presi- 
dent announces that a motion to adjourn is in order. 

A Memrer (obtaining the floor). Mr. President, I move 
we adjourn. 

Another Memrer (seated). I second the motion. 

The President. You have heard the motion that we ad- 
journ. All in favor say, "Aye." (Unanimous.) I declare 
this meeting adjourned to the fifteenth of next October. 2 

The following general hints may be of value for 
ordinary procedure. 

1. When a motion is before the house, another 
motion may properly be made and seconded to 

1 The President returns to the regular order of business. 

2 In declaring a meeting adjourned, it is well to state the 
date of the next regular meeting. 



270 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

amend the first motion, or to postpone indefinitely 
or to a specified time, the motion under consideration. 

2. When votes are close, a Division of the house 
may be called for. Some societies make provisions 
for secret balloting on certain questions. 

3. The doing of a thing contrary to rules is equiva- 
lent to suspension of rules. Before a thing can be 
done contrary to the regular rules of procedure, the 
meeting itself must pass a vote by a two-thirds ma- 
jority, allowing the suspension of rules. If the motion 
is lost, the regular method of procedure must be 
followed. 

4. A quorum is the smallest number of the mem- 
bers of a society that can transact business. Usually, 
the society in its constitution determines how many 
may constitute a quorum. In some societies it is a 
majority of the active members; in others, two- 
thirds, etc. 

5. Committees may be appointed by the presiding 
officer, by nomination and vote, or by a resolution 
which contains the names of those decided upon as 
members of the committee. As a rule, the constitu- 
tion of the society prescribes how its regular standing 
committees are to be formed. 

Exercise 121. — Oral and Written 

1. The foregoing dramatization should be thor- 
oughly analyzed, with special attention to the foot- 
notes, and then should be presented by members of 
the class. 

2. The teacher may, to advantage, plan a business 
meeting to be conducted by parliamentary procedure, 



PARLIAMENTARY PROCEDURE 271 

in which a communication is received; a committee 
submits a report; unfinished business and new busi- 
ness are taken up. Practice should be given in making 
and seconding motions, in moving and seconding 
amendments. 

3. Let the student investigate and discuss: 

1. The by-laws of a society. 

2. The division of duties among the officers. 

3. The duties of a member of a society. 

4. Laying a motion on the table. 

5. Non-debatable motions. 

6. The object, forms, and rules of the Previous Question. 

7. The different forms of amendments and rules govern- 
ing them. 

8. A motion to reconsider. 

9. The methods of appointing tellers and conducting a 
secret ballot. 

10. The methods of nominating candidates. 

11. Should a candidate for office vote for himself? 

12. Amending a Constitution. 

13. The Purpose of a Constitution. 

14. A model Constitution for the organization of a class. 

Confine the discussion to the following topics. 

Purpose Meetings 

Condition of membership Quorum 

Forfeiture of membership Amendments 

Officers By-Laws 

4. Write the minutes for Exercise 121 : 1. 



Chapter XV 

AFTER-DINNER SPEAKING 

1. Introductory. — Centuries ago, our Anglo- 
Saxon ancestors were in the habit of gathering in 
the long hall of a chieftain's castle for the purpose 
of eating, drinking, and making merry. This 
celebration usually occurred after a notable day's 
work in the chase or the battle. 1 Then, as the glow 
of good fellowship began to spread, the warriors 
pledged healths to one another as they quaffed 
their bumpers of ale; exchanged complimentary 
remarks, or, on occasions when a stranger was 
present, actually made formal addresses. The 
history of other races shows this custom of socia- 
bility to have been almost as old as the races 
themselves. 

From the earliest times, the banquet has per- 
sisted. And to it has clung the custom of having 
a series of speeches at the end of the dinner, which 
seem to round off the occasion properly. Business 
men and women, professional men, clubs, societies, 
fraternities, school organizations, 2 school classes — 
all hold banquets. The banquet is one of the 

1 See Beowulf. See also Ivanhoe, Chapter XIV. 

2 See Tom Browns School Days, Book I, Chapter VI. 

272 



AFTER-DINNER SPEAKING 273 

usual means of bringing a large number of men 
and women together either for mere renewal of 
social intercourse or for the celebration of some 
special occasion or event. 

And with the growing frequency of banquets, 
after-dinner speaking has come to be recognized 
more and more as an artistic effort and less and 
less as a number of rambling ideas and stray anec- 
dotes jumbled together. It is the purpose of this 
chapter to point out the essential factors of a suc- 
cessful after-dinner speech. 

The following speech, in response to the toast, 
"Diplomacy," was delivered at the banquet of the 
New York Chamber of Commerce, November 21, 
1907, by Baron Rosen, then Russian Ambassador 
to the United States. 

Mr. President and Gentlemen: Whenever a diplomat is 
called upon to deliver a public address, he finds himself in a 
position of singular embarrassment. To me, personally, 
to-night, it is enhanced by the fact that I have to follow the 
extremely eloquent, serious, witty, and admirable speech 
of my friend and colleague. As a matter of fact, a diplomat 
is trained professionally rather in the science of keeping 
mum — there is no liquid allusion in that — (Laughter) , 
than in the art of speaking out, especially publicly; for the 
game of diplomacy is usually supposed to be played best, 
like the game of whist, by silently watching the fall of the 
cards and raking in the tricks that may come your way or 
that are being made for you by your partner; (Laughter 
and applause) ; and besides, there always is a danger. But 
that is another story. I will, however, proceed to tell it to 
you, because it is short, and will, I think, best illustrate the 



274 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

point I wish to make. Many of you gentlemen no doubt 
remember the great blizzard of March, 1888. I was then 
living in New York, and it made me feel like home. So I 
got out my furs and my snow boots and went out to have a 
look at snow-bound New York. It was indeed a sight to 
see. The storm had banked up enormous masses of snow 
against the west side of Broadway, nearly covering the 
stoops and reaching high up on the show windows of the 
shops. On one of these snow banks some street urchins had 
rigged up a signboard, bearing this highly appropriate in- 
scription, "Keep off the grass." (Laughter.) These four 
weighty words then and there impressed themselves on my 
brain, and ever since I have been endeavoring to live up 
to the wise advice of these young and precocious philoso- 
phers. (Laughter and applause.) The safest way of keep- 
ing off any oratorical grass would naturally be to practice 
the teaching of that Oriental sage who held that speech was 
silver but silence was gold; and I would, therefore, feel 
sorely tempted just now to place myself on a gold basis 
and to stand pat on that proposition. (Laughter.) 

But having the honor of addressing the men who, with 
those who preceded them as members of this ancient and 
venerable and honorable body, were so greatly instrumental 
in making the City what it is to-day, and who are going to 
make it what it is soon destined to be, the center of the 
world's commerce and finance, (Applause), I cannot resist the 
temptation to register my claim to a modest share — not, 
indeed, in their achievements, but in their civic pride in the 
phenomenal growth and greatness of their City. I venture 
to base this claim on the fact that there was a time, nearly 
a quarter of a century ago, when it was my good fortune to 
have been, so to speak, a New Yorker myself, and ever since 
then I have kept a particularly warm place in my heart for 
this City, where I did what some of you undoubtedly did 
likewise — I mean some of those among you who do not 



AFTER-DINNER SPEAKING 275 

believe in race suicide — I spent my honeymoon here. 
(Applause.) You will see, therefore, gentlemen, that New 
York has always been to me much more than a temporary 
home, a place of transitory residence. I have never sailed 
from your magnificent harbor without regret, and I have 
never again set my feet on the soil of Manhattan without 
experiencing a feeling of joyful elation at again breathing 
that bracing atmosphere of boundless energy and buoyant 
hopefulness which has made this happy land the Mecca 
of the toiling millions of another older, more crowded, and 
more sedate continent, and which has inspired the author 
of that charming book, The Land of Contrasts, to dedicate 
it in the following words: "To the land where I first real- 
ized how much life was worth living." (Applause.) 

Gentlemen, your President, in his very kind and cordial 
introductory remarks, has been pleased to refer to events of 
days long gone by, whose memory, however, is still kept green 
in many hearts, as I have been happy to find upon my return 
to this country, after a long absence. This has been more of a 
gratification to me as I belong myself to a generation who 
witnessed and who shared in the soul-stirring enthusiasm that 
greeted everywhere in Russia the mission, after the close of 
the war, of Mr. Fox and Admiral Farragut, the mission of the 
American people to the great nation on the other side of the 
globe that had extended to them the hand of friendship in the 
hour of their trial. (Great applause.) Nature seems to have 
destined our two countries, so similarly situated in many re- 
spects, to be and to remain always the best of friends. There 
never have been, and I trust never will be, any justifiable 
grounds for political rivalry between them. 

Gentlemen, in conclusion, permit me to express the fer-. 
vent wish that the time-honored traditional friendship be- 
tween our countries may never be clouded by any temporary 
misunderstandings, and that it may endure for ever and 
ever. (Great applause and cries of "Good!") 



276 



EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 



OUTLINE OF BARON ROSEN'S SPEECH 

I. Making a public address always embar- 
rasses a diplomat 

A. My embarrassment is enhanced by 
the witty speaker who preceded 
me 

B. Diplomats are usually expected to be 
Humorous mum 

opening 1. Humorous touch is given by the 

to secure expression " liquid allusion" 

attention (the name of a famous cham- 

pagne is Mumm's Extra Dry). 

2. Humorous reference is made to 
the blizzard of 1888 and the 
story of " Keep off the grass." 
Application — I must keep 
off oratorical grass. 



Delicate 
compliments 
to gain 
approval 



II. I want to register my claim to a modest 
share in the civic pride of this body 
of men (The New York Chamber of 
Commerce) 

A. Nearly a quarter of a century ago, I 

was a New Yorker myself, for I 
spent my honeymoon here 

B. New York has always been to me 

more than a temporary home 

1. I always regret leaving it 

2. I always experience elation when 

I set foot on its soil 



Main idea 
to stimulate 
sympathetic 
thought 



AFTER-DINNER SPEAKING 
III. 



277 



Your country and mine seem destined to 
remain the best of friends 

A, This has been previously proved by 

the hand of friendship in time of 
trial 

B. There never has been, and never 

ought to be, any justifiable 
grounds for political rivalry be- 
tween them 



Dignified 
conclusion 
to leave a 
striking 
impression 



IV. May this time-honored traditional friend- 
ship never be clouded by any tem- 
porary misunderstandings 



2. Successful Qualities of an After-dinner 
Speech. — When you have eaten an elaborate 
dinner, you do not care for a sermon or a lecture. 
Your fellow-banqueters, for the same reason, would 
not care for a sermon or lecture from you, were you 
called upon to address them. A heavy dinner 
always tends to make one drowsy; a good after- 
dinner speech helps to keep one alert. 

A good after-dinner speech succeeds because : 

1. It is brief. — Baron Rosen's speech might have 
been delivered easily in twelve minutes. Five to 
fifteen minutes is the usual range; shorter, if possible; 
longer, only at one's peril. 

2. It is pointed. — One main idea, presented 
tersely, captures attention. Concentration means 
impression. The best marksman hits the bull's eye 



278 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

squarely with the first shot. In Baron Rosen's 
speech, his main idea was to present widely the friend- 
ship between the United States and Russia. Not 
once did he use a " preachy " sentence. He began 
with a humorous opening in order to get his fellow- 
banqueters interested; then he made graceful, com- 
plimentary remarks to show his interest in them; and 
then he brought out, in a clear and forceful way, his 
big idea. Note how the speech gradually grew less 
and less personal and humorous, and more and more 
dignified as it advanced, until, at the end, it left a 
distinctly serious impression. Furthermore, observe 
how the Baron accomplished his main purpose largely 
through suggestion rather than detail. 

3. It is entertaining. — The speaker must select 
his material with the object of arousing general 
interest, and making a sympathetic appeal. By giv- 
ing an appropriate, humorous anecdote, he keeps 
those who listen in a happy frame of mind. The 
anecdote, however, must have some relation to 
what he is saying; it should illustrate or emphasize 
some idea. A minister, on rising to make an after- 
dinner speech, might tell the following anecdote to 
show his intention not to deliver a sermon. 

During the Civil War, an officer under the Government 
called at the Executive Mansion, accompanied by a clerical 
friend. "Mr. President," said he, "allow me to present to 

you my friend, the Rev. Mr. F— — , of . Mr. F has 

expressed a desire to see you, and have some conversation 
with you, and I am happy to be the means of introducing 

him." The President shook hands with Mr. F and, 

desiring him to be seated, took a seat himself. Then — his 



AFTER-DINNER SPEAKING 279 

countenance having assumed an expression of patient wait- 
ing — he said, "I am now ready to hear what you have to 
say." "Oh, bless you, sir," said Mr. F , "I have noth- 
ing special to say. I merely called to pay my respects to 
you and, as one of the million, to assure you of my hearty 
sympathy and support." "My dear sir," said the President, 
rising promptly, his face showing instant relief, and with 
both hands grasping that of his* visitor, "I am very glad to 
see you; I am very glad to see you, indeed. I thought you 
had come to preach to me!" 

Some after-dinner speakers are so clever that, in- 
stead of using anecdotes, they cast their whole speech 
into terse and breezy epigrams. But it is only the 
unusual person who can do this successfully. Mark 
Twain excelled in this sort of thing. Here are a few 
epigrams from his responses at a dinner in honor of 
his seventieth birthday: "I have achieved my 
seventy years in the usual way; by sticking strictly 
to a scheme of life which would kill anybody else." 
"We can't reach old age by another man's road." 
"Exercise is loathsome. And it cannot be any bene- 
fit when you are tired; I was always tired." "My 
habits protect my life, but they would assassinate 
you. 

3. Planning an After-dinner Speech. — It is 
wise to plan an after-dinner speech. Usually 
you are given your subject in advance. Now 
enter the needs of purpose; that is, a choice of 
the main idea which you wish to convey: of se- 
lection; that is, a rapid inventory of your minor 
ideas, and a choice of those which will be of vital 



280 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

service: of arrangement; that is, a grouping of 
your ideas so that they will stand out in an 
orderly, well-developed manner. It is well to 
select one appropriate anecdote. Try to find a 
bit of humor that is fresh. Stories which we all 
know are liable to fall flat. "Should auld ac- 
quaintance be forgot? " asks the poet. The answer 
is "Yes," if it happens to be a time-worn story. 
4. Delivering an After-dinner Speech. — When 
it comes to the delivery of your speech, even 
though you may feel nervous, you must try to 
appear at ease. A nervous speaker makes an audi- 
ence nervous. Practice is the big factor in cul- 
tivating ease. Be sure you know the gist of your 
speech — and, above all, be able to relate your 
anecdote tellingly. Try to appear as if every bit 
of what you said came spontaneously. It is im- 
portant to prepare your speech so well that you 
can recite it readily; it is more important to de- 
liver your speech so that your auditors will believe 
that it has come naturally and easily to your mind 
during its actual delivery. 

Exercise 122. — Oral and Written 

1. Let the class assume it is at a banquet. Let 
the teacher or some student act as toastmaster, and 
call on various members to respond to the following 
toasts. The outlines of the speeches should have 
been submitted and approved beforehand. Care 
should be exercised by the students to deliver their 



AFTER-DINNER SPEAKING 281 

speeches in as easy and spontaneous a manner as 
possible. 

1. "Of making many books there is no end." The Bible 

2. The best friends are the friends we have now. 

3. The spirit of loyalty to the school is the best class 
spirit. 

4. "A little learning is a dangerous thing." Pope 

5. "He that never thinks never can be wise." Johnson 

6. "Experience keeps a dear school, but fools will learn 

in no Other." Franklin 

7. Books are friends who can hold or lend their 
tongues. 

8. If we were like what we'd like to be like, 
Should we once like to be what we are? 

2. Dramatize the following dinners. Prepare pro- 
grams and speeches. Outline and submit each speech 
and anecdote before delivery. 

1. A dinner of farewell to a friend leaving for an ex- 
tended trip. 

2. A reunion dinner. 

3. A banquet to defeated rivals in an athletic or debat- 
ing association. 

4. A banquet of a graduating class. 

5. A banquet of business, professional, or technical 
workers. 

6. A dinner of the editorial board of a school paper. 

7. A banquet in honor of some patriotic occasion. 

8. A dinner of welcome to the new students of a 
school. 

9. A dinner given to the actors in a school play. 
10. A birthday celebration. 



282 EFFECTIVE ENGLISH EXPRESSION 

3. Bring to the class an anecdote which might be 
appropriate for an after-dinner speech. To illustrate 
what point would it be suitable? Prepare to read 
or tell orally the anecdote. 

4. Submit an after-dinner speech in complete 
form. Deliver it. The following topics are merely 
possible suggestions. 

1. The modern business man. 

2. Modern opportunities for women. 

3. The true sportsman. 

4. Our town: 

a. From a student's point of view. \ 

b. From a doctor's point of view. 

c. From a merchant's point of view. 

d. From a shopper's point of view. 

e. From a lawyer's point of view. 

5. Money is time. 

6. The best foot forward. 

5. Supplement the model speech and illustrative 
anecdote found in this chapter by consulting: 

The National Geographic Magazine, January, 1913. 
Specimen Speeches. 

Modern Eloquence, Vol. I. Specimen Speeches. 
Modern Eloquence, Vol. X. Anecdotes. 
Forms of Public Address, George P. Baker. 



APPENDIX A 

THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

There are eight parts of speech. These are: 

noun adjective adverb preposition 

pronoun verb conjunction interjection 

I 

1. A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing, 
salesman saleswoman ledger business avenue 

2. Nouns are classified as proper or common. 

A proper noun is the name of a particular person, 
place, or thing. 

Europe Thomas Edison July 

The General Electric Company (considered as a 
unit) 

All other nouns are classified as common, 
typewriter bookkeeper bicycle bay 

Proper nouns are capitalized; other nouns are not. 

3. Nouns are sometimes spoken of as abstract. 
Such nouns name abstract qualities, hence the name. 

accuracy wisdom clearness brevity 

283 



284 APPENDIX A 

4. Nouns are collective when they name groups or 
collections. 

committee congress board company 

corporation crowd firm regiment 

When the units that compose the group are con- 
sidered as one, the verb is singular. 
The crowd is listening attentively to the speaker. 

When the units that compose the group are con- 
sidered separately, the verb is plural. 
The committee are of various minds. 

5. Nouns are verbal when they name an action. 
Such nouns are derived from verbs. They are some- 
times considered as abstract. 

working studying adding advertising 

buying eating selling dictating 

The possessive case is used with verbal nouns just 
the same as with other nouns. See Chapter IV, 
page 76. 

Lucy's going was a surprise to me. 

He did not dream of my doing that. 

6. The gender of nouns denotes sex. Nouns de- 
noting males are said to be masculine; females, 
feminine; without sex, neuter. 

Masculine gender Feminine gender Neuter gender 
man woman book 

boy girl day 

7. Nouns are singular when they denote one per- 
son or thing; plural when they denote more than one. 

Singular Plural 

man men 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 285 

8. Case is the form of a noun which indicates its 
relation to other words in a sentence. Nouns have 
three cases: the nominative, the possessive, the 
objective. 

Nominative: John studies. 

Possessive: Johns books are here. 

Objective: He invited John. That is for the teacher. 

The possessive case of singular nouns is formed by 
adding an apostrophe and s ('s) to the nominative. 

lady's glove baby's hat 

Holmes's party Dickens's novels 

The possessive case of plural nouns not ending in s 
is formed by adding an apostrophe and s ('s) 

men's opportunities women's styles 

children's toys oxen's stalls 

The possessive case of plural nouns ending in s is 
formed by adding the apostrophe alone. 

ladies' tailor employers' liability 

The possessive case of a compound noun is formed 
by adding 's to the last word. This rule applies 
also to firm names, names of collaborators, etc. 

my sister-in-law's home 

Bacon, Brown & Wilcox's Allied Stores 

Golden and Dunham's Chemistry 

II 

1. A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. 
The antecedent of a pronoun is the word for which 
the pronoun stands. The antecedent of every pro- 
noun must be unmistakable. See pages 75-76. 



286 APPENDIX A 

When a stage-manager happens to have imagination, he 
must set before the people the fruits of his imagination. 

The pronoun he stands for stage-manager. 
The word stage- manager is the antecedent of 
the pronoun he. 

2. Pronouns are helpful in avoiding the monoto- 
nous repetition of nouns. They are important sen- 
tence elements, and should not be omitted in business 
correspondence with the view to securing brevity. 

Do not say: Have received your letter of June 26, etc. 

3. Pronouns are classified as personal, relative, 
demonstrative, interrogative, indefinite, possessive, 
distributive. 

4. The personal pronouns are: /, thou, you, he, 
she, it; we, you, they. For a study of their use, see 
Chapter IV. 

5. The relative pronouns are: who, which, what, 
that, whoever, whosoever, whatever, whatsoever. As 
their name suggests, they perform the office of 
pronouns and also relate sentence parts. 

This is the ledger which came yesterday. 

Which stands for ledger and relates the subordinate 
clause to its principal. 

6. The demonstrative pronouns are: this, that, the 
former, the latter, the same, such, etc. Note the caution 
discussed in Chapter VI, page 132. 

7. Interrogative pronouns are used in questioning. 
They are: who, which, what. Who only is declined. 

Nominative: who. Possessive: whose. Objective: whom. 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 287 

8. The most common indefinite pronouns are: 
some, any, other, another, one, few, many, several. 

9. The possessive pronouns are: mine, thine, yours, 
his, hers, its; ours, yours, theirs. 

That machine is ours. 

Note that the possessive sign is not used with the 
personal pronoun to denote possession. 

10. The distributive pronouns are: each, every, 
either, and neither. See pages 75-76, 87. 

11. Pronouns, like nouns, have gender to denote 
sex or the lack of it. Masculine: him, his; femi- 
nine: her, hers; neuter: it, its. 

12. The person of a pronoun denotes whether it 
is the person speaking (first person), the person spoken 
to (second person), or the person spoken of (third 
person). 

First person: / am going. 
Second person: You are right. 
Third person: He is helpful. 

■ « 

13. For the number of pronouns, see Chapter IV, 

page 67. 

14. For the case of pronouns, see Chapter IV, page 
67. To the subjective and objective cases discussed 
on this page should be added the possessive; as, His 
is larger than mine. 

Ill 

1. An adjective is a word used to limit or qualify 
the meaning of a noun. 

modern methods paying investment 

one month taxable security 



288 APPENDIX A 

2. A proper adjective is formed from a proper 
noun and must be capitalized. 

Irish immigration Chinese industries 
Jewish literature French fashions 

3. The articles, a, an, and the, are now generally 
considered as limiting adjectives. 

4. Adjectives are classified as descriptive, pro- 
nominal, or numeral. 

5. A descriptive adjective names some quality of 
an object. 

the efficient bookkeeper a pounding sea 

6. A pronominal adjective is a pronoun used as 
an adjective. If such a word stands alone, it is a 
pronoun; if it modifies or limits a noun, it is an ad- 
jective. Pronominal adjectives are classified accord- 
ing to their use as demonstrative, interrogative, 
indefinite. 

These kinds of signs attract attention. 

These points out or demonstrates, and is a 
pronominal adjective modifying kinds. Other 
pronominal adjectives are: this, that, those, the 
former, the latter, the same. 

Which work is completed? 

Which is a pronominal adjective modifying work. 
What is also of this class. 

Some letters are indefinite; others are to the point. 

Some is a pronominal adjective modifying the noun 
letters, but it does not specifically state which 
letters are meant. Some is, therefore, an in- 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 289 

definite pronominal adjective. Other indefinite 
pronominal adjectives are: any, all, another, both, 
many, much. 

7. Numeral adjectives are classified as cardinal or 
ordinal. 

Two orders were sent. 

Two is a cardinal adjective. 

The second order was mailed to-day. 
Second is an ordinal adjective. 

8. Adjectives are compared to denote degree. 
There are three degrees: positive, comparative, 
superlative. 

Positive: This desk is large. 

Large describes the desk without reference to any 
other object. 

Comparative: This desk is larger than mine. 

Larger describes the desk with reference to the size 
of a second desk. 

Superlative: This desk is the largest desk here. 

Largest describes the desk, and also indicates that 
three or more desks are considered. 

IV 

1. A verb asserts an act or a state of a subject. 

I buy. I am happy. 

2. The question whether an adverb or an adjective 
is to be used with a verb depends upon the nature of 
the assertion. If action is expressed, an adverb 



290 APPENDIX A 

should modify the verb ; if state of being is expressed, 
an adjective should complete the predicate. 

He looks coldly on my plan. 

Action is asserted, hence the adverb coldly is used. 

He looks cold. 

State of being is asserted, hence the use of the 
adjective cold. 

3. Verbs are said to be regular or irregular. 

A regular verb (often spoken of as belonging to the 
weak or new conjugation) forms its past tense 
and perfect participle by adding d or ed to the 
stem of the verb. 

walk walked (have or has) walked 

An irregular verb (said to belong to the strong or 
old conjugation) forms its past tense and perfect 
participle usually by changing the root vowel. 

drink drank drunk 

4. Verbs are said to be transitive or intransitive. 
A transitive verb requires an object to complete 

its meaning; that is, the action passes from the 
subject through the verb to the object. 

He helped George and me. 

An intransitive verb does not require an object to 
complete its meaning. 

The train arrived. They remained. 

5. Verbs according to rank are principal or auxil- 
iary. The principal verb expresses the assertion; the 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 291 

auxiliary helps its principal in performing its office in 
the sentence. 

I should stop in Philadelphia. 

Stop is the principal verb; should is the auxiliary. 

6. Shall and Will. — Independent Clauses. 

No auxiliaries are so frequently misused in English 
as shall and will. To master the distinctions associ- 
ated with these verbs, the following tables, rules, and 
examples should be carefully studied. 

Table I Table II 

Simple Future Volitional Future 

I shall go We shall go (Used to express purpose, desire, 

.^ promise, determination, on the 

You Will go YOU Will go part of the speaker) 

He wiU go They will go I w m go We will go 

You shall go You shall go 
He shall go They shall go 

From the foregoing tables, the rule for simple sen- 
tences and independent clauses can be deduced. 

To express simple futurity, use shall in the first 
person and will in the second and third persons. To 
express volitional futurity, use will in the first person, 
and shall in the second and third persons. 

In the sentence: "I shall be lost, for no one will 
guide me," the speaker names a result that may 
happen in the future; if he says: "I will be lost, for 
no one shall guide me," he expresses determination, 
not only to be lost, but also to have no guide. 

The rule for shall and will in questions may be 
stated thus: 

Use in questions the form of the auxiliary expected 
in the answer. 



292 APPENDIX A 

"Shall you be at the meeting?" is a question 
denoting simple futurity, The answer expected is: 
"I shall (not) be at the meeting." "Will he go with 
you?" is also a question denoting futurity, since the 
answer expected is: "He will (not) go with me." 
"Shall he be admitted?" The answer expected is: 
"He shall (not) be admitted," and denotes volition 
on the part of the one who answers. "Will you be 
at the meeting?" is equivalent to saying: "Do you 
wish to be at the meeting?" or "Are you willing to be 
at the meeting?" and denotes volition. The answer 
expected is: "I will (not) be at the meeting." "Will 
I be at the meeting?" means, "Is it my intention to 
be at the meeting?" a foolish question, unless it is 
used to repeat the question of another speaker. 

7. Shall and Will. — Dependent Clauses. The first 
point to note is the subject of the main verb in the 
independent clause and the subject of the verb in 
the dependent clause. In the sentence, "I think that 
he will go," the subjects respectively are 7 and he. 
In the sentence, "He thinks that he shall go," the 
subjects respectively are he and he, and refer to the 
same person. 

(1) In a noun clause introduced by that (See 
Chapter IV, page 71, for discussion of noun clauses), 
if the subject is different from that of the main 
clause, use the form of shall or will to express 
simple futurity or volitional futurity which is indi- 
cated in Tables I or II. "We think that you will 
go," is really equivalent to "You will go, is our 
thought." "They think that we shall go," is 
really equivalent to "We shall go, is their thought." 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 293 

"He says that John shall go," is equivalent to 
"John shall go, is his thought." 

(2) In a noun clause introduced by that, if the 
subject is like that of the main clause, use shall 
to denote futurity and will to denote volition. 
"He thinks that he shall go," expresses in the 
dependent clause simple futurity, and is equivalent 
in direct discourse to "I shall go, is my thought." 
"You think that you shall go," expresses in the 
dependent clause simple futurity and is equivalent 
in direct discourse to "We shall go, is our thought." 
"They think that they shall go," expresses simple 
futurity in the dependent clause and is equivalent 
in direct discourse to "We shall go, is our thought." 
On the other hand, "He thinks that he will go," 
denotes volitional futurity in the dependent clause 
and is equivalent in direct discourse to "I will 
go, is my thought." 

(3) In all other dependent clauses, use shall to 
denote simple futurity and will to denote volitional 
futurity on the part of the subject. 

If Harry will help me, I can go too. (volitional futurity) 

If a man shall steal an ox, or a sheep, and kill it, or sell it, 
he shall restore five oxen for an ox, and four sheep for 
a sheep. (simple futurity) 

But if thou wilt give it, I will give thee money for the 
field. (volitional futurity) 

For when I shall have brought them into the land which 
I sware unto their fathers, that floweth with milk and 
honey; and they shall have eaten and filled them- 
selves, and waxen fat; then will they turn unto other 
gods, and serve them, and provoke me and break my 
covenant. (simple futurity) 



294 APPENDIX A 

Uses of should and would. When the main clause 
is in the past tense, use should in the dependent 
clause where you would employ shall, and would 
where you would employ will, if the main clause 
were in the present tense. 

"He thought that we should be present," would 
read, "He thinks that we shall be present," if the 
main clause were in the present tense. 

"You thought that he would be late," would read, 
"You think that he will be late," if the main clause 
were in the present tense. 

Exceptional uses of Shall and Will, Should and 
Would. 

Shall is used in the third person to express a 
prophecy. 

And they that be wise shall shine as the brightness of 
the firmament; and they that turn many to righteous- 
ness as the stars for ever and ever. 

Every valley shall be exalted, and every mountain and 
hill shall be made low: and the crooked shall be made 
straight, and the rough places plain. 

Will is used in the second and third persons to 
express a polite command. 

You will now interview the director. 
He will go with you soon. 

Will is used in the second and third persons to 
denote willingness or determination on the part 
of the subject. 

He will go, but only to please you. 
You will go, in spite of all I say. 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 295 

Should is used to express duty, propriety, or 
obligation. 

He should help his sister. 

Would is used to express a wish. 

Would that I were younger! 

Would is used to express habitual action. 

He ivould sit by the hour discussing politics. 

8. A verb is said to be in the active voice when its 
subject is represented as acting. 

He threw the ball. 

9. A verb is said to be in the passive voice when its 
subject is represented as acted upon. 

He was hit by the ball. 

10. A verb in the indicative mood expresses a fact. 

He asked me to come. 

If I am late, it is no fault of mine. (Granted that I am 
late, the fault is not mine.) 

11. A verb in the subjunctive mood expresses 
doubt, condition, desire. See Chapter IV, Rule 18. 

If I be late, it is no fault of mine. (There is doubt in my 
mind about my being late, but the fault is not mine.) 

12. A verb in the imperative mood expresses a 
command or an entreaty. 

Stop the car. 

13. The potential mood expresses ability, necessity, 
obligation, permission, possibility. It is formed by 
means of may, can, must, might, would, could, and 
should. 



296 APPENDIX A 

14. The tense of a verb indicates the time and 
duration of the action. "I am running,'" means that 
the action is going on in the present time and is pro- 
gressing. "I had run" means that the action had 
occurred in the past time, and was completed then. 

15. A verb agrees with its subject in person and 
number. See page 78. 

"He rides." He is third person, singular; rides is also 
third person, singular. 

16. For a study of some of the troublesome irregu- 
lar verbs, see Chapter IV, pages 79-85. 

17. The following is the complete conjugation of 
the regular verb praise. 

Indicative Mood 
active voice passive voice 

Present Tense 
Singular Singular 

I praise I am praised 

Thou praisest, you praise Thou art praised 

He praises (He praiseth) He is praised 

Plural Plural 

We praise We are praised 

You praise You are praised 

They praise They are praised 

Past Tense 
Singular Singular 

I praised I was praised 

Thou praisedst Thou wast praised 

He praised He was praised 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 



297 



Plural 
We praised 
You praised 
They praised 

Singular 
I shall praise 
Thou wilt praise 
He will praise 

Plural 
We shall praise 
You will praise 
They will praise 

Singular 
I have praised 
Thou hast praised 
He has praised 

Plural 
We have praised 
You have praised 
They have praised 

Singular 
I had praised 
Thou hadst praised 
He had praised 

Plural 
We had praised 
You had praised 
They had praised 



Plural 
We were praised 
You were praised 
They were praised 

Future Tense 

Singular 
I shall be praised 
Thou wilt be praised 
He will be praised 

Plural 
We shall be praised 
You will be praised 
They will be praised 

Perfect Tense 

Singular 
I have been praised 
Thou hast been praised 
He has been praised 

Plural 
We have been praised 
You have been praised 
They have been praised 

Pluperfect Tense 

Singular 
I had been praised 
Thou hadst been praised 
He had been praised 

Plural 
We had been praised 
You had been praised 
They had been praised 



298 



APPENDIX A 



Future Perfect Tense 
Singular Singular 

I shall have praised I shall have been praised 

Thou wilt have praised Thou wilt have been praised 

He will have praised He will have been praised 



Plural 
We shall have praised 
You will have praised 
They will have praised 



Plural 
We shall have been praised 
You will have been praised 
They will have been praised 



Subjunctive Mood 

Present Tense 



Singular 
If I praise 
If thou praise 
If he praise 



Plural 



If we praise 
If you praise 
If they praise 



Singular 
If I praised 
If thou praised 
If he praised 

Plural 
If we praised 
If you praised 
If they praised 



Singular 
If I be praised 
If thou be praised 
If he be praised 

Plural 
If we be praised 
If you be praised 
If they be praised 

Past Tense 

Singular 
If I were praised 
If thou wert praised 
If he were praised 

Plural 
If we were praised 
If you were praised 
If they were praised 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 



299 



ACTIVE VOICE 



PASSIVE VOICE 



Singular 
If I have praised 
If thou have praised 
If he have praised 



Perfect Tense 

Singular 
If I have been praised 
If thou have been praised 
If he have been praised 



Plural 
If we have praised 
If you have praised 
If they have praised 



Plural 
If we have been praised 
If you have been praised 
If they have been praised 



Singular 
If I had praised 
If thou had praised 
If he had praised 



Pluperfect Tense 

Singular 
If I had been praised 
If thou had been praised 
If he had been praised 



Plural 
If we had praised 
If you had praised 
If they had praised 



Plural 
If we had been praised 
If you had been praised 
If they had been praised 



Potential Mood 

Present Tense 



Singular 
I may praise 
Thou mayest praise 
He may praise 

Plural 
We may praise 
You may praise 
They may praise 



Singular 
I may be praised 
Thou mayest be praised 
He may be praised 

Plural 
We may be praised 
You may be praised 
They may be praised 



300 



APPENDIX A 



Singular 
I might praise 
Thou mightst praise 
He might praise 

Plural 
We might praise 
You might praise 
They might praise 



Past Tense 

Singular 
I might be praised 
Thou mightst be praised 
He might be praised 

Plural 
We might be praised 
You might be praised 
They might be praised 



Perfect Tense 



Singular 
I may have praised 
Thou mayest have praised 

He may have praised 

Plural 
We may have praised 
You may have praised 
They may have praised 



Singular 
I may have been praised 
Thou mayest have been 

praised 
He may have been praised 

Plural 
We may have been praised 
You may have been praised 
They may have been praised 



Pluperfect Tense 



Singular 
I might have praised 
Thou mightst have praised 

He might have praised 



Plural 
I might have been praised 
Thou mightst have been 

praised 
He might have been praised 



Plural 
We might have praised 
You might have praised 
They might have praised 



Plural 
We might have been praised 
You might have been praised 
They might have been praised 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 301 

Imperative Mood 

Present Tense 
Singular Singular 

Praise (thou) Be thou praised 

Plural Plural 

Praise (ye) Be ye praised 

Infinitive Mood 

Present: To praise To be praised 

Present Progressive: To be praising 
Perfect: To have praised To have been praised 

Perfect Progressive: To have been praising 

Participles 

Present: Praising Being praised 

Past: Praised Praised 

Perfect: Having praised Having been praised 

Perfect Progressive: Having been praising 

V 

1. An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an 
adjective, or another adverb. 

He ran quickly. This is nearly clean. He handled it 
very roughly. 

2. Most adverbs are formed from adjectives by 
adding ly to the positive degree; as: fine ly, even ly, 
efficient ly, rapid ly. 

3. Adverbs may be classified as: 

Adverbs of cause: why, therefore, wherefore, hence, 

accordingly, etc. 
Adverbs of concession: indeed, however, nevertheless 



302 APPENDIX A 

Adverbs of degree: as, almost, so, very, much, enough, 

etc. 
Adverbs of manner: quickly, harshly, sincerely, 

respectfully 
Adverbs of place: there, here, hither, where, etc. 
Adverbs of time : then, soon, never, always 

4. Many adverbs, like adjectives, are compared 
by adding er and est to the positive. They are, how- 
ever, more commonly compared by the use of more 
or most. 

Examples: fast, faster, fastest; easily, more easily, most 
easily 

5. For the distinction in the use of adverbs and 
adjectives, see Chapter IV, page 88. 

VI 

1. A conjunction is used to join words or groups 
of words. 

John is efficient, but Henry is more efficient than John is. 

2. Conjunctions are divided into two main classes: 
coordinate and subordinate. 

3. Coordinate conjunctions, as the name indicates, 
join words or groups of words of the same order or 
rank. The most common conjunctions of this class 
are: and, but, or; and the correlatives, either . . . or; 
neither . . . nor; both . . . and; whether . . . or; not 
only . . . but (also); etc. 

4. Subordinate conjunctions are used to introduce 
clauses. They are divided according to their use as 
follows: 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 303 

Cause: oecause, as, for, since, etc. 
Concession: though, although, etc. 
Condition: if, provided, unless, etc. 
Comparison: as, than 
Time: while, when, before, etc. 
Place: where, 

Purpose and Result: in order that, that, so that, 
lest, etc. 

VII 

A preposition is a word used to show the relation of 
its object to some other word or words in the sentence. 

The book is on the table. 

A list of the common prepositions, together with 
their effect upon pronouns, is given in Chapter IV, 
page 67. 

VIII 

An interjection is a word used to express sudden 
emotion. 

Oh! Hurrah! 



APPENDIX B 

MODEL EXTRACTS AND MODEL OUTLINES 
Narrative 

. . . The King read, and mused in the entrance of his 
pavilion; behind, and with his back, turned to the same 
entrance, the Nubian slave still burnished the ample pavesse ; 
in front of all, at an hundred paces distant, the yeomen of 
the guard stood, sat, or lay extended on the grass, attentive 
to their own sports, but pursuing them in silence, while on 
the esplanade betwixt them and the front of the tent lay, 
scarcely to be distinguished from a bundle of rags, the sense- 
less form of the marabout. 

But the Nubian had the advantage of a mirror, from the 
brilliant reflection which the surface of the highly polished 
shield now afforded, by means of which he beheld, to his 
alarm and surprise, that the marabout raised his head 
gently from the ground, so as to survey all around him, mov- 
ing with a well-adjusted precaution, which seemed entirely 
inconsistent with a state of ebriety. He couched his head 
instantly, as if satisfied he was unobserved, and began, with 
the slightest possible appearance of voluntary effort, to drag 
himself, as if by chance, ever nearer and nearer to the King, 
but stopping, and remaining fixed at intervals, like the spider, 
which, moving towards her object, collapses into apparent 
lifelessness when she thinks she is the subject of observation. 
This species of movement appeared suspicious to the Ethio- 
pian, who, on his part, prepared himself, as quietly as pos- 
sible, to interfere, the instant that interference should seem 

to be necessary. 

304 



MODEL EXTRACTS AND MODEL OUTLINES 305 

The marabout meanwhile glided on gradually and im- 
perceptibly, serpent-like, or rather snail-like, till he was 
about ten yards' distance from Richard's person, when, 
starting on his feet, he sprang forward with the bound of a 
tiger, stood at the King's back in less than an instant, and 
brandished aloft the cangiar, or poniard, which he had 
hidden in his sleeve. Not the presence of his whole army 
could have saved their heroic monarch; but the motions of 
the Nubian had been as well calculated as those of the en- 
thusiast, and ere the latter could strike, the former caught 
his uplifted arm. Turning his fanatical wrath upon what 
thus unexpectedly interposed betwixt him and his object, 
the Charegite, for such was the seeming marabout, dealt 
the Nubian a blow with the dagger, which, however, only 
grazed his arm, while the far superior strength of the Ethio- 
pian easily dashed him to the ground. Aware of what had 
passed, Richard had now arisen, and, with little more of 
surprise, anger, or interest of any kind in his countenance 
than an ordinary man would show in brushing off and crush- 
ing an intrusive wasp, caught up the stool on which he had 
been sitting, and exclaiming only, "Ha, dog!" dashed al- 
most to pieces the skull of the assassin, who uttered twice, 
once in a loud and once in a broken tone, the words "Allah 
Ackbar" (God is victorious) and expired at the King's feet. 

Sir Walter Scott: The Talisman. 

I. Purpose: To show the fidelity of the Nubian 
slave (the Ethiopian) to his King 

n. Plan: 

A. Introduction 

1. The attitude and occupation of the King 

2. The position and work of the slave 

3. The location and pastimes of the guard 

4. The posture and appearance of the marabout 



306 APPENDIX B 

B. Plot 

1. Events leading to the Climax 

a. The Nubian watches in the surface of his 
shield the movements of the marabout. 

(1) The marabout raises his head gently from 

the ground to survey his surroundings. 

(2) He couches his head, satisfied that he is 

unobserved. 

(3) He begins to drag himself, as if by chance, 

nearer and nearer to the King. 

6. The Nubian begins to prepare himself to in- 
terfere with the apparent purpose of the 
marabout. 

c. The marabout, when about ten yards' distance 
from Richard's person, tries to execute his 
treacherous plan. 

(1) He springs to the King's back. 

(2) He brandishes a poniard concealed hitherto 

in his sleeve. 

2. The Climax 

The Nubian encounters the marabout. 

(1) He catches the marabout's uplifted arm. 

(2) The marabout deals the Nubian a blow. 

(3) The Nubian dashes the enthusiast to the 

ground. 

3. Events after the Climax 

a. Richard coolly arises and dashes his stool at 

the head of the assassin. 

b. The marabout, uttering in a loud voice, "God 

is victorious!" expires at the King's feet. 



MODEL EXTRACTS AND MODEL OUTLINES 307 

Descriptive 

On entering the amphitheatre, new objects of wonder 
presented themselves. On a level spot in the center was a 
company of odd-looking personages playing at ninepins. 
They were dressed in a quaint, outlandish fashion; some 
wore short doublets, others jerkins, with long knives in their 
belts, and most of them had enormous breeches, of similar 
style with that of the guide's. Their visages, too, were pe- 
culiar; one had a large beard, broad face, and small, pig- 
gish eyes; the face of another seemed to consist entirely of 
nose, and was surmounted by a white, sugar-loaf hat, set 
off with a little red cock's tail. They all had beards, of vari- 
ous shapes and colors. There was one who seemed to be 
the commander. He was a stout old gentleman, with a 
weather-beaten countenance; he wore a laced doublet, 
broad belt and hanger, high-crowned hat and feather, red 
stockings, and high-heeled shoes, with roses in them. The 
whole group reminded Rip of the figures in an old Flemish 
painting, in the parlor of Dominie Van Shaick, the village 
parson, and which had been brought over from Holland at 

the time of the settlement. 

Irving: The Sketch Book. 

I. Purpose : To show the new objects of wonder in 
the scene 

II. Plan: 

A. General impression 

The effect of the scene upon Rip as he entered 
the amphitheatre 

B. Details of the scene 

1. The company as a whole 

a. Position and general appearance 
6. Pastime 



308 APPENDIX B 

c. Dress 

(1) General impression 

(2) Examples 

d. Visages 

(1) General impression 

(2) Types 

2. The commander 

a. Build 

b. Age 

c. Countenance 

d. Dress 

C. The effect of the whole scene upon Rip, the 
onlooker 

Expository 

PRINCIPAL AND INCOME. An important rule for the 
preservation of property is that the line of distinction 
which must separate income from principal shall be kept 
constantly well defined; for if it is necessary to save a por- 
tion of the income each year, it certainly cannot be of less 
importance that the principal, which furnishes the income, 
shall be free from all confusion and complication which 
might lead to an encroachment upon and a consequent im- 
pairment of it. 

In order that this distinction between principal and in- 
come may be clearly maintained, it is necessary to consider 
what ought properly to constitute principal and what in- 
come. The dictionary gives the following definitions, — 
Principal: property or capital as opposed to interest or in- 
come; a sum of money on which interest accrues or is reck- 
oned. Income: the amount of money coming to a person or 
corporation within a specified time or regularly, whether as 
payment for services, interest, or profit from investment; 
revenues. For practical purposes these definitions, unless 



MODEL EXTRACTS AND MODEL OUTLINES 309 

materially modified, will prove to be unsatisfactory; for 
to the wise investor interest will very often accrue on money 
which is income as well as on that which is principal, and 
no careful person will be willing to regard all kinds of profit 
from investment as income. Definitions which will be found 
much more serviceable to investors are these: All money 
which is regularly received either for the use of property or 
as compensation for services is income: all other property 
is principal. Thus rents, interest, dividends, royalties, an- 
nuities, salary, wages, commissions, professional fees, regular 
returns from business, are to be regarded as income; while 
capital, gifts, legacies, devises, unusual profits from invest- 
ments, and savings from income are to be accounted as 
principal. 

In general it may be said that that which is purchased 
with principal is still principal in another form, and similarly 
that which is purchased with income continues to be income. 
Whatever is of a permanent nature may be considered as 
principal, while perishable objects which must be consumed 
and replaced are to be regarded as income. The houses in 
which we live are parts of our principals because they were 
purchased with parts of our principals and are of a permanent 
nature; but the furniture which is in the house may well be 
regarded as income, because it will eventually become anti- 
quated and worn out and will have to be replaced. 

Since regularity or uniformity of income, at least so far 
as the possibility of decrease is concerned, is a consideration 
of so great importance, an excellent guide to the distinction 
between principal and income will be this very quality of 
regularity. If, therefore, a profit is received which is unusual, 
occasional, or which the possessor cannot reasonably expect 
to receive regularly, it must be regarded as a part of the 
principal. If we purchase a house for five thousand dollars 
and sell it for six thousand, the profit of one thousand dollars, 
as well as the original purchase price, is principal. If we buy 



310 APPENDIX B 

Government bonds and sell them at a profit of five hundred 
dollars, this profit is principal, not income. If we find fifty 
dollars in the street, it should become a part of our ever- 
growing principal, because we cannot depend upon finding 
that amount regularly each year. If we buy a horse and 
carriage for our own use, they should be purchased with in- 
come, and they will remain income for this reason and also 
because they are not of a permanent nature; but if we sell 
them at a profit the profit becomes principal because we 
cannot expect regularly to repeat the operation. 

The suggestions which have been made for the distin- 
guishing between principal and income appear to be in all 
respects sufficient. The necessity that such distinctions shall 
generally favor the principal is, however, so important, that 
to the suggestions which have already been offered may be 
added another to the effect that whenever serious difficulties 
in making the distinction shall arise, and investors shall 
find themselves in quandaries, the most advantageous solu- 
tion of the problem will be that which will place the doubtful 
items to the credit of the principals. 

John Howard Cromwell: The American Business Woman. 

(Adapted) 



Purpose: To draw distinctions between principal 
and income for the sake of preventing impair- 
ment of principal 

Plan: 

A. Introduction 

Statement of purpose 

B. Body 

1. Definitions 

a. Usual definitions of 

(1) Principal 

(2) Income 



MODEL EXTRACTS AND MODEL OUTLINES 311 

b. More serviceable definitions of 

(1) Income 

(2) Principal 

2. Distinctions in property based upon 

a. Means of purchase 

b. Permanency of thing purchased 

3. Distinctions based upon regularity 

a. Classification of irregular profit as principal 

b. Classification of regular profit as income 

C. Conclusion 

Importance of placing doubtful items to the 
credit of the principal 

Argumentative 

There are various ways of playing football, most of them 
good. It is the present American intercollegiate game that 
is not good. This game has been fashioned out of the old 
Rugby scrimmage by a process of militarizing. Two rigid, 
rampart-like lines of human flesh have been created, one of 
defense, the other of offense, and behind the latter is estab- 
lished a catapult to fire through a porthole opened in the 
offensive rampart a missile composed of four or five human 
bodies globulated about a carried football with a maximum 
of initial velocity against the presumably weakest point in 
the opposing rampart. The "point" is a single human 
being. If it prove not to have been the weakest to start 
with, — it can be made such, if the missile be fired times 
enough. Therein lies the distinctive American contribu- 
tion to the Rugby game. By allowing players to advance 
ahead of the ball, the American feature of "interference" 
has been created, and therewith the "mass play." The 
process of materialization has been aided by making the 
ball always, at any given time, the possession of one of 
the two sides. There is nothing final or ideal about the 



312 APPENDIX B 

present form of the game, nor does it exist by an authority 
descending out of Sinai. It happens to be what it just now 
is by virtue of tinkering legislation of the sort that gaf e us 
last the profitless quarter back run and changed the field 
from a gridiron to a multiplication table. 

The participants in the game are not players, but cogs in 
a machine. Each man does one thing over and over. One 
man does practically all the kicking, two do all the carrying, 
and the rest keep each to his own specialized pushing. A 
man may play the season through without having finger or 
toe against the ball. Weeks of special physical training are 
necessary before venturing into the game, and once the 
"season" is over no one thinks of going out to play it for 
fun, not even the men who have "made the team." In 
fact, there is no game for the individual to play, it is a body 
of evolutions into which every man of the squad must have 
been drilled by patient repetitions of the same maneuver 
in precisely the same relative position to the other members 
of the squad, — after the manner of chorus girls in the grand 
ballet. To put it briefly, American intercollegiate football 
is a spectacle, and not a sport. If the element of "gate 
money" were removed, the whole thing would vanish away 
— in season as well as out of season. 

The game is to be judged, therefore, in the present situa- 
tion, not from the point of view of college sport and physical 
culture, but from that of the query, Is it desirable, in the 
interest of institutional solidarity or "college spirit," to 
maintain such a spectacle? It has been unmistakably de- 
termined that the public is glad to lend financial support in 
the form of admission fees to the maintenance of the spec- 
tacle; shall a few stout men in each of our universities 
lend themselves to the gratification of this public taste? 

Only a few are needed. In the ten years from 1892 to 
1902, at the University of California, only seventy-five dif- 
ferent men made the team as players or substitutes out of 



MODEL EXTRACTS AND MODEL OUTLINES 313 

four thousand or more different male students during that 
time in attendance. As a player generally holds on for three 
or four years, seventy-five men, with a certain number of 
hopeless candidates as background, will suffice for the pro- 
posed task in any decade. 

A better solution, in my opinion, is to return from the 
spectacle to the sport; take off the headgear and the nose- 
guards, and the thigh-padding and the knee-padding, and 
introduce the Association game for light men and runners, 
— indeed, for the average man, — and the restored Rugby, 
perhaps with its Australian modifications, for the heavier 
and more vigorous men. Then let the student mass descend 
from its enthronement in sedentary athletics on the bleachers, 
and get health and fun and virility out of the heartiest and 
manliest of our sports. 

Benjamin Ide Wheeler: In Review of Reviews 33:72. 

Outline of President Wheeler's Argument 

Resolved, That we should give up the present game 
of football and resort to the Rugby game. 

I. Purpose: To prove that football, as it is now 
played, is a spectacle and not a sport 

II. Plan: 

A. Introduction 

There are various differences between the 
American game and Rugby football, the 
American innovation being "interference " 
and " mass play." 

Special Issue: The American game is not 
true sport. 

B. Brief proper 

1. The participants are not players but mere 
cogs in a machine, for 



314 APPENDIX B 

a. Each man has but one thing to do over 

and over through the entire game ; for 
example, 

A "guard" may go through a whole sea- 
son doing nothing but push without 
having finger or toe on the ball. 

b. The one thing each player does, requires 

no individuality, for 

He is trained with the others most pa- 
tiently beforehand after the manner of 
chorus girls in the grand ballet. 

2. American football does not promote general 
physical culture or develop college spirit, 
for 

a. The game is played largely for the gate 

receipts of a public glad to pay a price 
to see a spectacle, for 

The players have no satisfaction in the 
game for itself. 

b. Only a few have any opportunity to enter 

into the game; for example, 

At the University of California between 
1892 and 1902 only 75 out of 4000 or 
more had the training of the game. 

C. Conclusion 

American football can be made a game for 
all by a "return from the spectacle to the 
sport." 



APPENDIX C 

LETTERS OF APPLICATION 

TfW*Xv.U, '.qi*-. 

im n t— n -^t Xa^ JtdkL vrva- crt a. yu»J - ki *X«er»v< vr\, H^***" -*»Jk»4»* <•■■%«,■»■<« "V* JUkfc- 
Jj^Wc £*»*. Y\*M> lu>. Q. ''W "jf ,A ' , - I**"-*-*' -twav»vL-eva, -*«v- £J\JL CJjl^mXa^A. 

TTW. X»vaav«. Iv. Ca^kvrXi^ % 4mivcLuu .urfruttm. U /cUdL "meat ffi tral ttvjwnt. AJk#i 
AM*\4t, A/TV X/KU CXlakJlcwtv'jL J^SiJ^lcoX n**J\^ Ac+x-irC. 

l/jvtLT, At*W lu JXt; a«wa, 

EcUoaJL 9. iDJ^ 
315 



316 APPENDIX C 

BOY WANTED over 16 years old, one who 
can use a typewriter. Answer in own hand- 
. writing. Address P 19, Herald-Republican. 

J^JUt £LJul Mtyj tOGuL., 



J-&<ns\s j&aa~ 



^AJitz^L CL, &TXAAAJL /InA^XuIuUi^^uZi^ (^^AaJ^aJ (UuAMAAtJ 
/Yyi**irrtX%J J <j/ A_<*/y^ ^(^JIaa^ .cLrvv^. / ^le^<>«^/^7' L> t^/<^^^^^- 

s</^L<rt«*' ■stshrTs^ dsC GlWLsf, Ztiv^JL. Ayf^rt^ (h^tU-c fU^OsaCJsfc 




APPENDIX D 

ORAL EXERCISES 

1. What were you and (he, him) talking about? 

2. He said that Frank and (we, us) might go. 

3. He permitted Frank and (we, us) to go. 

4. Are you sure that the man who called was not (he, 
him)? 

5. May Frank and (me, I) be excused? 

6. Boys like (they, them) are considered reliable. 

7. He gave the money to those (who, whom) he thought 
could invest it to advantage. 

8. (He, him) and his sisters, they said, would be invited 
to attend the lecture. 

9. (He, him) and his sisters I invited to the lecture. 

10. No one went but William and (we, us) who have 
reported. 

11. I knew the clever man of whom they were speaking 
to be (he, him). 

12. You enjoy dancing more than (she, her). 

13. The duties of the new president (was, were) read 
aloud. 

14. Of the two boys, I think you will like John better than 
(he, him). 

15. (Has, have) either of you two boys a pencil? 

16. If it had been (he, him), would the result have been 
the same? 

17. Tom was allowed to play with (whoever, whomever) 
was honest and fair. 

18. A good race was won by Tom and (he, him). 

19. If you could choose, (who, whom) would you prefer 
to be? 

20. No one could be (so, as) cautious as (he, him). 

21. (Who, whom) did you consider Arthur's best friend? 

317 



318 APPENDIX D 

22. Every public school boy had (his, their) own battles 
to fight. 

23. (Who, whom) do you consider the most admirable 
character in "Julius Csesar"? 

24. All but three of the candidates (were, was) confident 
of victory. 

25. Every one of the candidates (was, were) confident 
of victory. 

26. Do you approve of (us, our) going to Washington? 

27. They knew the ghosts to be (we, us) at the mas- 
querade. 

28. Do permit Margaret and (I, me) to accompany you. 

29. These are the men (who, whom) I felt confident were 
his companions. 

30. Think of (Peter's, Peter) asking such an absurd 
question! 

31. There is no excuse for any (girl, girl's) laughing. 

32. Are you very sure it was not (we, us) ? 

33. These are the children (who, whom) I know are 
blameless. 

34. How many (was, were) at the meeting? 

35. (There's, there 're) the wagons. 

36. (Who, whom) did you say was appointed his guardian? 

37. I do not know (who, whom) to go to for advice. 

38. Imagine (his, him) saying that! 

39. No one but George and (I, me) (was, were) absent. 

40. He was (some, somewhat) careless. 

41. After a little guessing, we decided that it was (he, him). 

42. They believed the burglar to be (he, him). 

43. She was more cowardly than (he, him). 

44. The officer forbade (George, George's) going. 

45. My friend, (who, whom) I hoped would win, lost the 
race. 

46. The cashier (who, whom) we suspected proved him- 
self to be honest. 

47. He suggested an excellent plan to Fred and (me, I). 

48. Why do you object to (me, my) being here? 

49. How should you like to be (she, her) ? 

50. I fully expected the costumer to be (he, him). 

51. Please let Walker and (I, me) go to the lecture. 

52. (Who, whom) was I believed to be? 

53. There sat Mary and (I, me). 



APPENDIX D 319 

54. He told me (who, whom) he wished to appoint. 

55. Marie is more studious than (we, us). 

56. Every pupil should bring (his, their) own books to 
class. 

57. We knew the agent was (he, him) . 

58. The agent was known to be (he, him). 

59. The services of a new leader (has, have) been obtained. 

60. The effect of his lectures (has, have) been to make 
people read. 

61. The result of the recent strikes and other labor 
troubles (was, were) very serious. 

62. Mr. Brown, with his wife, two sons, and several 
friends, (has, have) gone to Philadelphia. 

63. Either she or we (is, are) going. 

64. He will employ (whoever, whomever) is best fitted 
for the work. 

65. (Whoever, whomever) you decide to be the right 
one, will have the place. 

66. "Here's a book." " (Who, whom) for? " 

67. Many a girl has used (her, their) opportunities; 
many a boy, too, has made (his, their) way by seizing every 
chance that presented itself. 

68. You have made the mistake; for it could not by any 
chance have been (she, her). 

69. The vacancy was filled by Mr. Jones, (who, whom) 
the manager said ought to be promoted. 

70. The vacancy was filled by Mr. Jones, (who, whom) 
the manager thought worthy of promotion. 

71. Send (whoever, whomever) you will. 

72. Is it (we, us) you accuse? 

73. Let (he, him) that is sinless be the first to chide us. 

74. I used to visit (she, her) and her mother every time. 

75. They do not notice (we, us), boys at all. 

76. I am wondering (who, whom) to depend on here. 

77. That was (I, me) you saw last week. 

78. I can't believe that athletic youth is (he, him). 

79. She scolded Jane and (me, I). 

80.' You may write to (whoever, whomever) you please. 

81. It seemed to be (they, them) this time. 

82. We seemed to be (they, them) in my fancy. 

83. They sent cards to all (who, whom) they thought 
would accept. 



320 APPENDIX D 

84. He can skate better than (she, her). 

85. If I (was, were) he, I should go. 

86. If he (was, were) a friend of Johnson's, that would 
alter the case. 

87. He (don't, doesn't) know any better. 

88. I wish I (was, were) there too. 

89. (Who, whom) did you do that for? 

90. It could not have been (we, us). 

91. That is to be a matter between you and (I, me). 

92. He went with Frank and (I, me). 

93. Let you and (I, me) do that. 

94. He is the man (who, whom) I invited. 

95. You are the one (who, whom) I want for the position. 

96. He asked Tom and (I, me) to go. 

97. Everyone of us (is, are) ready. 

98. He has (laid, lain) his coat aside. 

99. It was difficult for him (to thus economize, to econo- 
mize thus). 

100. He (sits, sets) great store by physical exercise. 



INDEX 



Abstract nouns, 283 
Adjective clauses, 69, 70 
Adjectives, distinguished from ad- 
verbs, 88; defined, 287; proper, 
288; articles, 288; descriptive, 
pronominal, numeral, 288-289; 
comparison of, 289 
Adverbs, distinguished from ad- 
jectives, 88: defined, 301; for- 
mation, 301; of cause, 301; of 
concession, 301; of degree, 302; 
of manner, 302; of place, 302; 
of time, 302; comparison of, 302 
After-dinner speech, model, 273- 
275; outline of model, 276-277; 
qualities 277-279; delivering 
an, 280 
Antecedent of pronoun, 75 
Apostrophe, use of, 114-116 
Application, letters of, 315-316 
Argumentation, model, 311-313; 
model outline, 313-314; argu- 
mentative paragraph, 214-220; 
revision questions, 219-220 

Balanced sentences, defined, 172 

Capitals, use of, 93-97 

Case, objective, 66; object of 
preposition, 66; object of verb, 
68; subjective (nominative), 67, 
73-74, 285; possessive, 76; of 
relative pronouns, 69-72; with 
infinitive, 73-74 

Clause, defined, 52; independent 
and dependent, 57; adjective, 
69-70; noun, 71; with shall 
and will, 291-293 

Coherence, in the sentence, 51, 166- 
167; in the paragraph, 182-183 

Collective nouns, 284 

Colon, use of, 111-113 

Comma, use of, 98-109 

Common nouns, 283 



Comparison, of adjectives, 289; 

of adverbs, 302 
Complement, subjective, 73 
Complex sentences, defined, 57 
Complimentary close, 239 
Compound sentences, defined, 59 
Conjugation of the verb, 296-301 
Conjunctions, defined, 302; co- 
ordinate, 302; subordinate, 302; 
classification of subordinate 
(cause, concession, condition, 
comparison, time, place, pur- 
pose, and result), 303 
Connected paragraphs, 30 

Dash, use of, 113-114 
Declarative sentences, defined, 45 
Demonstrative pronouns, 286 
Dependent clauses, with shall and 

will, 292-293 
Description model, 307; model 

outline, 307-308; descriptive 

paragraph, 200-205; revision 

questions, 204-205; 

Emphasis, in the whole, 34; in the 
sentence, 169-175; in the para- 
graph (mass), 186-187 

Envelope, superscription on, 246- 
247 

Exclamation point, 46 

Exposition, model, 308-310; model 
outline, 310-311; expository 
paragraph, 205-213; revision 
questions, 213; 

Folding a letter, 243-245 
Friendly letter, 223-228 

Gender, of nouns, 284; of pro- 
nouns, 287 

Grammar, oral, value of, 65; oral 
practice, 88-92 

Heading of a letter, 233-235 



321 



322 



INDEX 



Imperative mood, 295 
Imperative sentences, defined, 46 
Independent clauses, with shall 

and will, 291-292 
Indicative mood, 85-86 
Infinitive, subject of, 74; com- 
plementary, 74; "split," 79 
Interjection, defined, 303 
Interrogative sentences, denned, 45 
Intransitive verbs, 290 
Introductory address, 235-238 
Invitations and replies, 228-230 
Irregular verbs, 79-85, 290 
Italics, use of, 174 

Letters, business, model, 232; 
heading of, 233-235; intro- 
ductory address, 235-238; salu- 
tation, 238-239; body, 239; 
complimentary close, 239; sig- 
nature, 240-241; stationery, 
242-243; folding a letter, 243- 
245; addressing the envelope, 
246; revision questions, 249- 
250; essential qualities (brevity, 
clearness, accuracy, courtesy; 
completeness, etc.), 251-253, 
dictating, 257; of application, 
315-316 
Letters, social, 223-228 
Loose sentences, denned, 170 

Modifiers, position, 51; kinds, 52 
Mood (indicative, subjunctive, im- 
perative, potential), 295 

Narration, model, 304-305; model 
outline, 305-306; narrative para- 
graph, 190-199; revision ques- 
tions, 195-196 

Nominative (subjective) case, 66- 
67, 285 

Noun clauses, 71-72 

Nouns, defined, 283; common 
and proper, 283; abstract, 283; 
collective, verbal, 284"; gender, 
number, 284; case, 285 

Number with either, neither, any 
one, no one, 87 

Objective case, 66-67, 285 
Outlines, 15, 17, 276-277, 305-306, 
307-308, 310-311, 313-314 



Paradigms, of verbs, 86, 296-301 

Paragraph unity, 177-182; coher- 
ence, 182-186; mass, 186-189; 
narrative, 190-196; newspaper 
narrative, 196-199; descriptive, 
200-205; expository, 205-213; 
argumentative, 214-220 

Paragraphs in a series, 30-41, 194, 
204, 211, 218 

Parenthetical expressions, defined, 
100 

Parliamentary procedure, 264-271 

Parts of a letter, 233-241 

Parts of speech, 283-303 

Period, use of, 97-98 

Periodic sentences, defined, 170- 
171 

Personal pronouns, 67, 286; de- 
clined, 67; object of preposi- 
tion, 66; object of verb, 68; 
ending in self, 87 

Phrase, defined, 52 

Possessive case, 114; of nouns, 
285; of pronouns, 287 

Predicate, entire, normal order, 46- 
47; inverted order, 48; base, 51 

Prepositions, defined, 303; object 
of, 66; list of common preposi- 
tions, 67 

Principal parts of verbs, 79-84 

Pronouns, defined, 285; number 
67; case, 67; personal, object of 
preposition, 66-67; object of 
verb, 68; relative, 69, 286; rela- 
tive, introducing noun clauses, 
71-72; agreement with ante- 
cedent, 75-76, 286; distributive, 
75-76; case of, following than 
and as, 77; some, somewhat, 
distinguished, 78; ending in 
self, 87; interrogative, 286; 
demonstrative, 286; indefinite, 
287; possessive, 287; gender, 
287; person, 287 

Proper adjectives, 288 

Proper nouns, defined, 283 

Punctuation, value of, 93; rules, 
93-122 

Purpose, importance of, 13-25; 
in the paragraph, 29, 30, 180, 
181, 190; in the sentence, 58, 
164; in the choice of words, 140 



INDEX 



323 



Quotations and quotation marks, 
116-120 

Regular verbs, defined, 290 
Relative pronouns, defined, 286; 

case of, 69; introducing noun 

clauses, 71-72 

Salutation of a letter, 238-239 

Selection of material, 13-14 

Semicolon, 109-111 

Sentences, defined, 42; kinds (de- 
clarative, interrogative, exclama- 
tory, imperative) and punctua- 
tion, 45-47; base, 51; structure 
(simple, complex, compound) , 
56-59; unity, 161-166; coher- 
ence, 166-169; emphasis, 169- 
176; rhetorical classification 
(loose, periodic, balanced), 170- 
173 

Shall and will, 291-293; should 
m and would, 294-295 

Signature, social letter, 224; busi- 
ness letter, 240-211 

Simple sentences, defined, 56-57 

Spelling, rules, 144-146; lists, 
146-160 

Subject, entire, normal order, 46- 
47; inverted order, 48; base, §1 

Subjunctive mood, 85-86,- 295 

Syllabication, 142-143 

Telephone messages, 261-263 

Tense, 296 

Topic sentence, defined, 30; 

value of, 30 
Transitive verbs, 290 



Unity, in the sentence, 161; in 
the paragraph, 177 

Variety, in use of sentences, 48-49 

Verbs, defined, 289; object of, 
68; agreement with subject, 
78 296; irregular verbs, 79-85; 
mood (indicative, subjunctive), 
85; defective (ought), 87;- can, 
could, may, might, 88; smell, 
look, sound, taste, grow, seem, 
88; regular and irregular, 290; 
transitive and intransitive, 290; 
principal and auxiliary, 290-291; 
shall and will, 291-295; voice 
(active, passive), 295; mood (in- 
dicative, subjunctive, impera- 
tive potential), 295; tense, 296; 
conjugation, 296-301 

Vocabulary, 123; value of, 123; 
how to broaden, 123 

Voice, 295 

Words, importance of, 123; build- 
ing a vocabulary, 123-124; 
origin, growth, and decay of, 
124-126; power of, 126; dis- 
tinctions in meaning, 127-133; 
prefixes, 134; roots, 134; power 
in advertising, newspaper writ- 
ing, and business letters, 135- 
140; syllabication, 142-143; 
spelling rules, 144-146; words 
frequently misspelled, 146-155; 
business words, 155-158; tech- 
nical words, 158-160 



